



op l/>6 



INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS, 

WASHINGTON, U. S. A. 

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PARAGUAY 



SECOND EDITION, 

RLE VIS ED -A.ND ENLARGED 

BY 

JOSE SKGUNDO DECOUD, 

Honorary Corresponding Member of the International Union 
of American Republics, 

WITH 

A CHAPTER ON THE NATIVE RACES 

BY 

Dr. J. HAMPDEN PORTER. 



SEPTEMBER, 1902. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 
I902. 




A M A P 

'OF THE REPUBLIC OF 



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INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS, 

WASHINGTON, U. S. A. 



PARAGUAY 



SECOND EDITION, 
REVISED AND ENLAROEID 

BY 

- JOSfi SEGUNDO DKCOUD, 

Honorary Corresponding Member of the International Union 
of American Republics, 

WITH 

A CHAPTER ON THE NATIVE RACES 

BY 

Dr. J. HAMPDEN PORTER. 



SEPTEMBER, 1902. 



WASHINGTON: 

pOVKKNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 
I902. 






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APR 14 IS 
U. Of D, 



While the utmost car* is taken to insure accuracy in the publications of the International Bureau of the 
American Republics, no pecuniary responsibility is assumed on account of errors or inaccuracies which 
may occur therein. 



WASHINGTON, D. C, U. S. A. 

Government Printing Office. 



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T_ CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Chapter I. The Paraguayan territory 5 

II. Topography and general appearance 9 

III. Paraguayan rivers and lakes 13 

IV. The climate . .".... 17 

V. Historical sketch . 23 

VI. Population, immigration, and colonization 27 

VII. Native races (by Dr. J. Hampden Porter) 41 

VIII. Constitution and government 67 

. IX. Political divisions, departments, districts, cantons, principal cities, 

and colonies - 71 

X. Agricultural wealth 79 

XL Mineral resources 89 

XII. Industrial enterprises _ _ 93 

XIII. Commerce 101 

XIV. Financial condition Ill 

XV. Government revenues and expenses 113 

XVI. Navigation and river service 119 

XVII. Railroads, telegraphs, telephone, and postal service 121 

XVIII. Religion and public instruction 125 

XIX. Miscellaneous information _ 127 

XX. Bibliographical notes - 141 

Appendix 1. Constitution of the Republic of Paraguay 145 

2. President Hayes's award 158 

3. Information on the "Colonia Nacional," formerly "President . 

Gonzalez' colony " 159 

4. Paraguayan land law of 1 885 160 

5. Report on yerba mate by United States Consul P»aker 164 

6. Direct-tax law of Paraguay, December 22, 1890 171 

7. Cotton cultivation in Paraguay 173 

8. Paraguayan law on trade-marks 175 

9. List of treaties and conventions entered into by the Republic of 

Paraguay 179 

3 



PARAGUAY. 



Chapter I. 



THE PARAGUAYAN TERRITORY. 

The Republic of Paraguay is an inland State, inclosed between the 
United States of Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and the Republic of 
Bolivia, and situated between 20° 10' 14" and 27° 35' south latitude 
and 54° 37' and 62° longitude west of Greenwich. 

During the first period of the Spanish domination Paragua}^ was 
called "the Province of Paraguay," and included all the territory east 
of the Andes and south of Brazil; but in 1617 a royal ordinance 
divided it into two provinces, and established at Buenos Ay res the 
seat of Government. In 1776 the Governor was raised to the rank of 
Viceroy. 

In 1811, when Paraguay proclaimed its independence, its area was 
86,310 square miles. 

At the end of the war which Paraguay had to tight — from 1865 to 
1870 — against the allied forces of the Brazilian Empire, the Argentine 
Republic, and the Republic of Uruguay, Paraguay was stripped of a 
portion of its fairest lands, it being forced to cede to Brazil an impor- 
tant part of its territory, north of the river Apa and of the Maracayii 
Range, where the richest Paraguayan "yerbales" are situated. 

By the treaty of February 3, 1876, between Paraguay and the 
Argentine Republic, another portion of the territory which the Para- 
gua}^an people had always claimed to be theirs, and which now forms 
the Argentine district of Formosa, between the Bermejo and the 
Pilcomayo rivers, was likewise surrendered. 

At present Paraguay is bounded on the north and the west by 
Bolivia, on the north and the east by the United States of Brazil and 
the Argentine Republic, and on the south and the west by the Argen- 
tine Republic. 

The Paraguay River, which runs from north to south across the 
whole Republic, divides it into two sections, which are named, respec- 
tively, El Paragua}' Oriental, or simply Paraguay, and El Paraguay 
Occidental, also called El Gran Chaco or El Chaco Paraguayo. 

5 



6 PARAGUAY. 

El Paraguay Oriental (Eastern Paraguay) lies on the left bank of 
the Paraguay River, between its waters and the Brazilian and the 
Argentine frontiers. El Paraguay Occidental (Western Paragua}^) 
lies on the opposite bank of the Paraguay River, between its waters 
and the frontiers of Bolivia, Brazil, and the Argentine Republic, and 
is mostly a desert, Villa Hayes, Fuerte Olimpo, and Bahia Negra 
being the only corporate towns within its limits. There are, never- 
theless, in this region numerous cattle ranches, sawmills, and some 
industrial establishments. 

The eastern region of Paraguay has an area of 168,741 square kilo- 
meters (104,850 square miles). The area of the western region is 
approximately 147,253 square kilometers (91,499 square miles). The 
total area in square kilometers is 315,994, and in square miles 196,349. 

The limits between Paraguay and Brazil and Paraguay^ and the 
Argentine Republic are now settled and well defined. 

The convention of March 26, 1872, between Paraguay and Brazil 
fixed the limits between the two countries in the following language: 

The bed of the Parana" Eiver from the mouth of the Iguazu, latitude 25° 30 / S., to 
the Salto Grande, latitude 24° 7 / S. From these falls the line runs about due west 
along the highest divide of the Sierra de Maracayii to the termination of the latter; 
thence as nearly as possible in straight line northward along the highest ground to 
the Sierra de Amambay, following the highest divide of that sierra to the principal 
source of the Apa, and along the bed of that river westward to its junction with the 
Paraguay. All the streams flowing north and east belong to Brazil and those south 
and west to Paraguay. 

The Commission, which has passed into history under the name of The 
Boundary Commission of 1872-1874 was intrusted with the actual loca- 
tion of the frontier as agreed upon, and did its work satisfactorily. 

Another convention, concluded on the 3d of February, 1876, between 
Paraguay and the Argentine Republic, provided for the proper deter- 
mination of the respective frontiers. The territory between the Pil- 
coniayo and the Bermejo rivers, which the Argentine Republic had 
claimed to be hers, was surrendered; but the part of El Chaco which 
extends from Bahia Negra to the Rio Verde was acknowledged to 
belong to Paraguay. The other section of El Chaco, which lies 
between the Rio Verde and the Pilcomayo, was subsequently adjudi- 
cated to Paraguay by the award of the President of the United States, 
chosen by both Governments as arbitrator to settle the dispute. The 
text of this award, dated November 12, 1878, is given at the end 
of this handbook as Appendix No. 2. 

In commemoration of this event, and as a compliment to the arbi- 
trator, the name of Villa Occidental was changed amid salvos of 
artillery and pealing of church bells into that of Villa Hayes, by 
which name it is now known. 

The question of limits between Paraguay and Bolivia has not been as 
yet settled. This question, which apparently has no practical impor- 



PAEAGUAY. 7 

tance, on account of the unpopulated condition of the disputed territory, 
affects, however, considerably the interests of Bolivia. It involves for 
the latter country the important problem of securing easier and prompter 
access to the Atlantic Ocean, and of obtaining in this way better 
facilities of communication with Europe. 

A treaty, which goes by the name of "the Ichaso-Benitez treaty," 
was concluded on the 23d of November, 1894, for the purpose of put- 
ting an end to this controversy, but it failed to secure ratification. 

The message sent to the Paraguyan Congress on April 1, 1902, by 
Vice-President Carvallo, acting President of the Republic, says: 
"Frank and cordial friendship exists between us and all civilized 
nations. The only difference which we have is with our sister Republic, 
Bolivia, but I entertain the utmost hope that this Government and the 
Government of Bolivia will settle satisfactorily to both parties this 
boundary dispute." 



Chapter II. 



TOPOGRAPHY AND GENERAL APPEARANCE. 

Mr. E. L. Baker, Consul of the United States of America at Buenos 
Ay res, in his report on "Paraguay, its commercial, industrial, and 
political condition," dated December 15, 1893, and published in No. 39 
of the Consular Reports of the United States, March, 1881, expresses 
himself as follows: 

The general appearance of Paraguay is far more attractive than either Uruguay or 
the Argentine Republic. The right bank of the river Paraguay presents an uninter- 
rupted fringe of dense forests, which stretch across to the eastern boundaries of the 
country and embrace a hundred different varieties of timber trees. On the oppo- 
site shore, skirting the Chaco, are open meadows of immeasurable extent, widening 
out among groves of palm and cocoanut trees. In the extreme southern limits oi 
Paraguay the mesopotamia is an alternation of low prairies and vast lagunaa, covered 
with a rank vegetation, and swamps, which extend northward for a considerable 
distance. * * * The country is almost bisected by a range of mountains run- 
ning north and south, which in the north is called the "Cordillera de Amambay," 
and in the south is designated by the name of Caaguazii. * * * There are many 
lateral spurs or smaller mountains, with intervening water courses, all of which tend 
to give a most pleasing variety to the natural scenery and a healthful virtue to the 
climate. 

The branch or spur of the Amambay Mountains called Maracayu 
Ridge, which runs eastward, produces on crossing the Parana River 
the famous Guaira Falls, a proper notice of which will be given 
hereafter. 

Mr. Frank D. Hill, Consul of the United States at Asuncion, sub- 
mitted to his Government, on January 23, 1889, a very interesting 
" Report on the history, geography, resources, people, products, gov- 
ernment, commerce, etc., of Paraguay," which was printed in No. 101 
of the Consular Reports, above cited, April, 1890, from which the fol- 
lowing is taken: 

In considering the relief of the country, the general level of the lowlands in the 
west and of the Chaco may be taken to be 250 or 300 feet above that of the sea, 
and no part of the country appears to be much higher than 2,000 feet. The 
eastern or Parang side of Paraguay is, however, much higher than the western. A 
chain of heights, termed "The cordillera," runs southward through the middle of the 
country parallel to the Rio Paraguay and the Alto Parand,, ramifying east and west 

9 



10 PARAGUAY. 

in some districts. A mass of elevated land in the west, isolated from the central 
chain by the lowlands of theTebicuari and the Manduvira rivers, and another plateau 
in the south in the Misiones are the chief elevations besides those of the Cordillera. 
The northern portion of what is termed "The Cordillera" has no title to this name, 
since it proved to be distinctly a southern continuation of the broad plateau of Brazil. 
This plateau of San Jose Amambay is about 2,000 feet high, and has a western 
declivity sloping to the Paraguay Kiver. In the center of the country the heights are 
named "The Cordillera of Caaguazii." Further south the Cordillera of Villa Rica 
extends from the head of the basin of the Tebicuari to the bluffs of the Rio Parang 
at Encarnacion. In latitude 24° an extensive branch of the main stem trends to the 
east, and crossing the Parana forms the grand cataract of Guayni. The southeastern 
portion of the country is the region of the "esteros," or low swamp lands, the abode 
of herons, storks, and snakes. 

The position of Paraguay, between the Paraguay and Parand, rivers, far distant 
from the sea, quite corresponds, as has been felicitously said by Consul Baker, of 
Buenos Ayres, to that of the State of Illinois, whose southern boundary is at the 
junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and a thousand miles from the Gulf. But, 
although it has, like Bolivia, no seaboard, there is a certain compensation in its great 
fluvial system. From Buenos Ayres one steams up the broad estuary, miscalled the 
River Plate, past the confluence of its great sources, the Uruguay and Parana 1 rivers, 
which meet 40 miles above the city, and descends the Parana River 800 miles to 
its junction with the Paraguay at Tres Bocas, a score of miles above Corrientes. 
Thence Asuncion is reached by traversing the Paraguay River 300 miles. 

Eastern Paraguay, or Paraguay proper, is not, by any means, as 
can be seen from the above quotations, a mountainous country; but 
in contrast with the monotonously level pampas of the Argentine 
Republic, its diversified surface may well seem so. Nevertheless, the 
term mountainous can hardly be applied to chains of hills whose great- 
est height scarcely exceeds 1,500 feet above the level of the sea. 
From the banks of the Paraguay River to the eastern frontier there is 
one continuous panorama of gently undulating plains, bordered by 
verdure-clad hills. The interior of the country is not as yet well 
known. Some of its vast virgin forests, which are found on the east 
and north, interpose barriers which have on some occasions driven 
back the hardiest explorers. Outside of the vallev, which extends 
from Asuncion, the capital, to Villa Encarnacion, the terminus of 
present railroad projects, and certain well-frequented roads leading to 
the "yerbales," the rich agricultural regions of the county, there are 
very few known routes of communication by land. Such geograph- 
ical knowledge as we have of Paraguay is mainly derived from follow- 
ing the course of its magnificent rivers. 

With reference to western Paraguay, or El Chaco, the interior of 
which is almost entirely in the possession of nomadic tribes of Indians, 
some of them hostile to the white man, and in which, up to a very late 
date, there have been no more settlements than Villa Occidental or 
Villa Hayes, 18 miles above Asuncion, and Fuerte Olimpo, near the 
northern boundary, almost exactly upon parallel 21°, Mr. John E. 
Bacon, Charge d' Affaires of the United States in Paraguay and Uru- 



PARAGUAY. 11 

guay, wrote to the Secretary of State of the United States in October, 
1888, the following: 

This Chaco, or Gran Chaco, as it is called, is an immense territory lying to the 
west and northwest of the rivers La Plata, Paraguay, etc., and has been, until the last 
ten or twenty years, regarded as comparatively worthless, owing to its supposed 
impenetrable swamps, dense morasses, and uninhabitable territory. The recent tide 
of immigration, however, to the Plata Valley gave rise to surveys of portions thereof 
and disclosed astounding developments of its fertility, salubrity, and other desirable 
qualities. These qualities, as gradually developed, have given rise to great conten- 
tions as to proprietorship thereof by the neighboring States, especially those of the 
Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Chile, and Bolivia. The limits, so far as the Argen- 
tine Republic and Paraguay were concerned, were left to arbitration (as is known) 
to President Hayes, who decided in favor of Paraguay. This decision has been of 
far greater importance in every way, especially financially, than was anticipated. 
Indeed, there has poured into the Paraguayan treasury from the sales of lands 
accorded to the Government by said arbitration a large amount of money, and it has 
been greatly instrumental in the rapid improvement, financial and otherwise, of the 
Republic. 

Mr. Edmund Shaw, United States Consul at Asuncion, in another 
report, dated December 14, 1891, a gives further information on this 
subject, and says: 

The general aspect of the Chaco is very pleasing to the eye. Forests of large and 
very superior trees, mostly evergreens, interchanged with rich pasture lands unex- 
celled for grazing purposes, meet the eye at every turn. The different kinds of wood 
which grow in these forests are mostly hard and very heavy, in fact too dense to 
raft down the river, which certainly is a drawback to the exportation of this timber. 
The soil is everywhere exceedingly rich, being black humus, loam, and marl. All 
kinds of grain, sugar cane, tobacco, and fruits can be grown to perfection, but there 
is little or no land under cultivation at the present time, the country only being 
inhabited by large bands of roving Indians, who are extremely lazy and indolent. 

A portion of the El Chaco territory south of Fuerte Olimpo has been 
surveyed and sold. The lands situated on the banks of the Paraguay 
River, for a distance of over 30 miles inland, are used for stock raising, 
and sell as high as lands in any other section of the Republic. They 
enjoy a well-deserved reputation for the superiority of their pastures, 
and the immensity of palm trees and trees of all kinds which grow on 
them. 

Up to the present time no practical result has been reached from the 
explorations which have been made on the Pilcomayo River. The 
navigation of this river, except for a distance of 50 leagues (150 miles) 
from its mouth, continues to be a very difficult problem. Referring 
to this subject, Mr. Shaw says: 

In 1880 Dr. Crevaux tried to navigate the river, going with the current from 
Bolivia toward the mouth, but he only succeeded in reaching a point 23° south lati- 
tude, where he was killed by the Indians and his expedition destroyed. The 

a Report of Consul Shaw, of Asunci6n, on " Paraguay: Situation, resources, products, government, 
people, commerce, etc." (Consular Report No. 138, March, 1892.) 



12 PARAGUAY. 

remains of his boats were discovered later on by Captains Baldrich and Fontana in 
1882. Feilberg in 1885, Storm in 1890, and Page in 1891 all tried to navigate this 
river, entering its mouth opposite Lambare and going toward its headwaters. All 
these expeditions have given the same result, viz, the navigators have been obliged 
to return without having reached farther than 23° south latitude, where as a rule the 
river is dry, with nothing more than a sandy and rock channel, unfit for the navi- 
gation even of small boats. But it appears that at 21° 50 / or 22° south latitude the 
river divides into two arms, which inclose the island of Ybezeta, and which join 
again in latitude 25° south. The whole of this big island appears to be arid, sandy, 
stony, and uninhabitable, dry in the hot season, and marshy to excess in the wet. 
Fontana went up the eastern side of the island in 1882, and Feilberg and Storm the 
western without any success. In 1890 it was discovered by Freund that the reason 
of the want of water in the Lower Pilcomayo is owing very likely to the fact that the 
river had left its old channel and flows into a new one, which reaches the Paraguay 
River in 23° south latitude, running for at least 100 leagues in a nearly easterly 
direction. 

An exploring and surveying party under the command of Mr. Freund went up 
this branch of the Pilcomayo River and found it navigable, there being 20 feet of 
water in the channel, the river being about 125 yards in width during seven days' 
steaming up the river. At this point the river was found to be blocked with fallen 
trees and floating timber, though still having the former depth of water. It is, 
therefore, a very feasible scheme, with the expenditure of a nominal sum of money, 
to make this channel the direct outlet for all Bolivian products and manufactures 
via the Paraguay River to Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. 

Mr. Gustavo Marguin, an official in the Bureau of Hydrography of 
the Argentine Republic, referring to the Fontana expedition, says: • 

The problem of the navigation of the Pilcomayo River has not been solved. 
* * * Nevertheless, it can be said that the work of removing the numerous 
obstacles, such as trees, roots, etc. , which obstruct the river from its mouth to 24° 57', 
would not be very difficult, and that the navigation of that part of the river would 
then become very easy. 



Chapter III. 



PARAGUAYAN RIVERS AND LAKES. 

Paraguay possesses two first-class fluvial ways of communication, 
which place its people in relation not only with Brazil, the Argentine 
Republic, and Uruguay, but also with the Atlantic Ocean and with 
Europe and the rest of the world. 

These two ways are the Parana and the Paraguay rivers, which are 
enriched by several tributaries, and which in their turn contribute, 
together with the Uruguay River, to form the La Plata River, one of 
the greatest estuaries in the world. 

The Parana. — In volume the Parana is a giant stream. It rises in 
the mountains of Goyaz, in Brazil, in latitude 16° 30' S., and has a 
length of 2,043 miles from its source to its junction with the Uruguay. 
It is divided into four sections, as follows: 

(1) From San Fernandino to Corrientes, 676 miles in length, 2,400 
yards in width (average) and 90 feet in depth (average). 

(2) From Corrientes to Iguazu, 492 miles in length, 1,500 yards 
average width and 70 feet average depth. 

(3) From Iguazu to the Guayra Falls, 210 miles in length and 1,200 
yards average width. 

(4) And from the Guayra Falls to Goyaz, 665 miles in length and 
1,500 } r ards average width. 

The basin of the Parana is separated from that of the Amazon Irv 
the central plateau which stretches from the Sierra de Espinasso to 
the Andes. 

The Parana River would be navigable throughout its entire length 
for vessels of the largest size if its upper waters were not closed to 
navigation by the cataracts of Urubupunga and Guayra. It is 
navigable up to Corrientes all the year round, the current run- 
ning 3 miles an hour and the fall averaging 4 inches to the mile. 
Between Corrientes and the Guayra Falls it is navigable for small 
steamers. The Brazilian gunboat Tacuray is supposed to have 
reached, in 1874, the highest navigable point, at 24° 30' S. This 
point is considered the limit of the navigation of the Parana River 
from the ocean, 

13 



14 PARAGUAY. 

The frontier of Paraguay commences at the Guayra Falls. These 
falls, situated in the midst of a desolate region, far from human habi- 
tation, and rendered almost inaccessible by virgin forests, rapids, and 
other obstacles, have been visited by veiy few, though they are said 
to form one of the grandest spectacles in the world. The volume of 
water which passes over them is twice that of Niagara. The falls are 
produced by the contraction of the river from a width of 4,470 yards 
into a narrow gorge of 65 yards, the waters making a plunge of 56 feet. 

If the Guayra Falls and the numerous tributaries of the Parana River 
which during their course form several cataracts, the principal of 
which are the ones called Piraty, Itaimbi, Acaray, Monday, and Pira- 
pita, are considered from the standpoint of practical usefulness, it will 
be found that they are very important. They might be used at small 
cost and with great advantage in the development of various industries 
of the country, on account of the great motive power which they are 
capable of producing. 

Senor Don Jose Segundo Decoud, ex-Secretary of Foreign Relations 
of Paraguay, in a speech which he delivered at Asuncion in 1889, 
said in regard to this matter: 

Few countries can be found on this continent so highly favored by nature as ours. 
Our secular forests abound in timber capable of being used in all kinds of indus- 
tries, and of serving as fuel to produce electricity at moderate prices. 

Technical studies made by competent engineers have shown that our charming 
and poetical Ipacaray Lake can be used as motive power for thousands of industries. 
Our waterfalls are numerous in all parts of our territory, but more especially in the 
rich and fertile regions of the Upper Parana, w 7 here most of the streams form great 
and powerful cataracts. Our majestic and superb Guayra Falls, emulating Niagara, 
are by themselves capable of generating power sufficient to move all the machinery 
of our future industries, and raise us to the rank of one of the first manufacturing 
countries in South America. 

The principal affluents of the Parana Rwer within the limits of the 
Republic are the Acaray, the Monday, and the Tacuari, which are 
navigable in their upper part, and are very useful for the transporta- 
tion of the yerba. 

The Parana River was explored in 1853 by a French vessel named 
La Philomele, in 1854 by an English ship called Vixen, in 1855 by a 
French vessel called Le Flambeau, in 1863 by the Water Witch, an 
American vessel, and in 1864 by a French vessel called Pulton. 

The Paraguay. — This river is in reality an affluent of the Parana, 
but it is so much in the same manner as the Missouri River is an 
affluent of the Mississippi. It takes its rise in a chain of lakes called 
the Seven Lagoons, in Brazilian territory in latitude 13° 30' S., and 
longitude 59° 2' W. of Greenwich, and flows southward, with a swift 
undeviating current, until reaching El Paso de la Patria, where it 
makes its confluence with the Parana, in latitude 27° 20' S. , and longi- 
tude 58° 30' W. Its total length is about 1,800 miles. Its average 



PARAGUAY. 15 

width within the Paraguaj^an territory is 500 meters. Its mean depth 
is 20 feet. The current runs 3 kilometers an hour, the fall being 10 
inches per mile from its source to Asuncion. 

From Colonia de Bahia Negra to the mouth of Rio Apa, which 
empties into it, the Paraguay runs southward between the Brazilian 
territory on its left bank and the Paraguayan Chaco on the right. 
At the mouth of the Apa, Brazil has established a colony, and on the 
opposite shore is a Paraguayan post of frontier surveillance, called Con- 
fluencia. Below the mouth of the Apa the navigation of the river 
becomes difficult, because of numerous reefs and sand bars. This por- 
tion of the river is described as extremely picturesque by Dr. E. de 
Bourgade la Dardye, the eminent French geographer and explorer, in 
his valuable work, Le Paraguay. Grand terraces of gray marble, honey- 
combed with deep grottoes, peopled by an infinitude of birds, such as 
one finds only in Paraguay, fringe the main channel of the stream or 
remain half hidden in the undergrowth of some abandoned arm of the 
river. Giant cacti and tree -ferns cling to all the interstices of the 
rocks, relieving their ruggedness. In the distance lofty hills form 
the horizon. The trees at certain seasons of the year are covered by 
glorious flowers, some resembling enormous bouquets of violets, oth- 
ers presenting translucent masses of yellow and crimson and every 
conceivable tint set in the gray background of the marble rocks. It 
is one perpetual scene of enchantment, which commences at Itapucu 
and continues till the environs of the ancient city of San Salvador are 
reached. 

A number of colonies are established in these regions. Some miles 
below San Salvador the banks become lower and the country resumes 
its monotonous features. 

Near the point where the river Aquidaban (scene of the final over- 
throw and death of Lopez) opens into the Paraguay the port of Villa 
Concepcion, one of the most important in Paraguay, is to be found. 
Below Concepcion the river's banks are very high on the left and very 
low on the Chaco side. The coast for many miles was covered prior 
to the late disastrous war by rich "estancias," or cattle farms. They 
were all destroyed during that terrible struggle, but now the}^ are 
being repeopled and resuming their former prosperity. Numerous 
tributary rivers enter the Paraguay during its further course, one of 
Avhich, appropriately named the u Confuso," after winding through 
innumerable detours in the Chaco countiy, pours into the Paraguay 
waters as salty as the ocean itself. Next comes the city of Asuncion, 
the capital of the Republic, resting indolently on the green hills of 
Mangrullo and Recoleta. Here the left bank of the river is ridged 
with red sandstone, which at some points, as at Itapytapunta, over- 
hangs nearly 90 feet the channel of the river. Close at hand is 
the green-crowned hill Lambare. In the distance, winding silently 



16 PARAGUAY. 

through the plains of the Chaco, is the mysterious and still unexplored 
Pilcomayo River, which forms the boundary between the Paraguayan 
and the Argentine Chacos. 

Beyond Lambare the river banks are dotted by a succession of 
pretty villages surrounded by orange groves and fertile bottom 
lands, from which a large quantity of fruit is exported by way of 
Buenos Ayres. Still farther down is the Fortress of Humaita, the 
last stronghold of Paraguay carried b}^ the allied forces, and at the 
confluence of Las Tres Bocas, or Three Mouths, the Paraguay joins 
the Parana. 

Two important affluents of the Paraguay are the Jejuy and the 
Tebicuary. Each of them in a country less opulent in navigable 
streams would rank in the first class. On the Jejuy is situated the 
excellent port of San Pedro. The Tebicuary, although navigable, 
is secondary in importance to the Jejuy. The other affluents are the 
Apa, the Aquidaban, the Ipane, the Manduvira, the Piribebuy, and 
the Salado, generally navigable for small craft, and in the period of 
the freshets for steamers of small draft. Vast quantities of yerba 
mate are brought down these rivers in flat-bottomed boats. 

The lakes of Paraguay are numerous. The most important is the 
Upua, 100 square miles in extent, and is drained by the Tebicuary. 

On the Chaco side the principal tributary is the Pilcomayo, which 
has already been mentioned. This important river, which rises in 
Bolivia and falls into the Paraguay, forms the boundaiy line between 
the Paraguayan and the Argentine Chacos. It is, as has been said, 
almost unexplored. The only accurate information regarding its 
direction and character which so far has been obtained is due to the 
expeditions of Father Patiiio, in 1791, and Lieutenant von Nivel, in 1814. 
Lower down on the same side the Bermejo River comes and empties 
into the Paraguay, after flowing a distance of 1,300 miles from its 
source in the highlands of Bolivia. Its course has been frequently 
explored and accurately determined. It is an extremely tortuous 
stream, but its depth is nowhere less that 5 feet. Both the Pilcomayo 
and the Bermejo rivers must some day be great highways of commerce 
and afford an outlet to the Atlantic seaboard for the rich natural 
resources of undeveloped Bolivia. 



Chapter IV. 



THE CLIMATE. 

With reference to the climate of Paraguay, Sefior Don Enrique 
Mangels, ex-Consul of Germany at Asuncion, says: 

The fact that Paraguay adjoins the Tropic of Capricorn might possibly suggest the 
idea that its climate is hot and dry, this being the case with most of the coun- 
tries bordering upon either side of the tropics. On the northern side the deserts of 
Sahara, Arabia, Persia, Central Asia, Mexico, and Texas can be cited in support of 
this truth; on the southern, those of South Africa, Australia, Atacama, and some 
provinces of the Argentine Eepublic also show the same fact. 

Fortunately, Paraguay is an exception to. the rule. Its climate has nothing in 
common with that of the countries situated in the same latitude. Rain is abundant 
during the whole year, and in consequence, the soil being very fertile, vegetation is 
exuberant and luxuriant. The heat is less excessive than in a country whose soil is 
destitute of forests and grasses. 

The following results about the climate of Paraguay have been obtained from daily 
observations during many years: 

The mean temperature at Asuncion varits between 22° C. (71.6° F. ) and 23° C. 
(73.4° F.), and is therefore about the same as that of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Cairo 
in Egypt, Hongkong in China, Caracas in Venezuela, and Tucuman in the Argentine 
Republic. The temperature in the interior of the country or in the mountainous 
part is from 2° C. (35.6° F.) to 5° C. (41° F.) cooler. The difference between the 
mean temperature in summer (from October to March) and in winter (from April to 
September), is approximately 6° C. (42.8° F.). The maximum of temperature 
observed at Asuncion is 41° C. (105.8° F. ), but there are many years in which it 
never exceeds 37° C. (98.6° F.). The minimum varies between 1° C. (33.8° F. ) and 
4° C. (39.2° F. ), and in the country occasionally reaches zero. From this it will be 
seen that the thermometer in Paraguay never covers more than 41° C. (105.8° F.), 
and in many years much less. 

A greater variation is observed in many other countries. In Montevideo, for 
instance, the temperature varies from 41° C. (105.8° F. ) to —1.3° C, (29.56° F. ), which 
makes a difference between the maximum and the minimum of 42.3° C. (108.14° F. ). 
In Cordoba the extremes are 41° C. (105.8° F.) and —6.8° C. (19.76° F.), the differ- 
ence being 47.8° C. (118.04° F. ). In Melbourne the maximum is 44° C. (111.2° F.) 
and the minimum -2.8° C. (26.96° F.), the difference being 46.8° C. (116.24° F.). 
In St. Petersburg the maximum is 33.4° C. (92.12° F.) and the minimum —28.5° C. 
(-19.3° F.), the difference being 61.9° C. (143.42° F.). In Yakutsk, Siberia, the 
maximum is 33° C. (91.4° F.) and the minimum -54.8° C. (-66.64° F.), the differ- 
ence being 87.8° C. (190.04° F. ). The highest temperatures ever recorded in Para- 
guay are about the same as those usually prevailing along the coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea and in the center of Europe. In the summer of 1892 it was observed that 
the thermometer was as high as 36° C. (96.8° F.) in the shade. In Africa and in 

85A— 02 2 17 



18 



PARAGUAY, 



Asia there are places where the mercury reaches 50° C. (122° F. ) during the day, 
and at night does not go lower than 35° C. (95° F.). 

In view of these data it is necessary to admit that the climate of Paraguay can be 
considered temperate, the moderation of the heat being due to the frequent rain, the 
luxuriance of the vegetation which covers the soil, and the coolness of the southern 
winds which generally prevail. 

Winter is sometimes cold, but the discomfort of the low temperature is never felt 
for more than about forty days. In the summer there are about one hundred days 
of excessive heat, the remaining two hundred and twenty-five days of the year being 
very pleasant. 

The following statement shows the difference of temperatures between the coldest 
and hottest months of the year 1886: 





Maximum. 


Minimum. 


Date. 


Maximum. 


Minimum. 


Date. 


Degrees 
Celsius. 


Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Degrees 
Celsius. 


Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Degrees 
Celsius. 


Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Degrees 
Celsius. 


Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Jan. 1 


35.5 


95.90 


23 


73.40 


June 1 


19 


66.20 


11 


51.80 


2 


24.5 


76.10 


21 


69.80 


2 


16.5 


61.70 


6.7 


44.06 


3 


26 


78.80 


21.5 


70.70 


3 


16.5 


61.70 


7.5 


45.50 


4 


28.3 


82.94 


23.2 


73.76 


4 


17 


62.60 


5.5 


41.90 


5 


34 


93.20 


22.2 


71.96 


5 


19 


66.20 


7.4 


45. 32 


6 


34.5 


94.10 


22 


71.60 


6 


18.4 


65.10 


10.6 


51.08 


7 


33 


91.40 


19 


66.20 


7 


16.6 


61.98 


12 


53.60 


8 


37.1 


98.78 


22 


71.60 


8 


13.7 


56. 66 


10.4 


50. 72 


9 


35.6 


96.08 


23.1 


73.58 


9 


15.3 


59.54 


7.1 


44.78 


10 


36 


96.80 


22.2 


71.96 


10 


16 


60.80 


3.5 


38.30 


11 


35.6 


96.08 


24 


75.20 


11 


16.5 


61.70 


4.4 


39.92 


12 


35.4 


95.72 


23.9 


75.02 


12 


15.5 


59.90 


6.6 


43.88 


13 


36.1 


96.98 


23.3 


73.94 


13 


16 


60.80 


10.3 


50.54 


14 


35 


95 


24.2 


75.56 


14 


15 


59 


10.5 


50.90 


15 


35.5 


95.90 


24 


75.20 


15 


15.5 


59.90 


5.2 


41.36 


16 


36 


96.80 


23.5 


74.30 


16 


18 


64.40 


5.6 


42.08 


17 


37 


98.60 


23.8 


74.84 


17 


17 


62.60 


5.5 


41.90 


18 


31.5 


88.70 


21.7 


71.06 


18 


15.5 


59.90 


7 


44.60 


19 


35 


95 


23.1 


73.58 


19 


15.5 


59.90 


3 


37.40 


20 


26 


78.80 


22 


71.60 


20 


13.1 


55.58 


5.7 


42.26 


21 


33 


91.40 


22.2 


71.96 


21 


14.9 


58.82 


7.3 


45. 14 


22 


31.5 


88.70 


22.4 


72.32 


22 


11.5 


52.70 


5 


41 


23 


30.5 


86.90 


22.3 


72.14 


23 


16.5 


61.70 


4 


39.20 


24 


33.2 


91.76 


22.5 


72. 50 


24 


20 


68 


5.5 


41.90 


25 


32.1 


89.78 


22 


71.60 


25 


24 


75.20 


10.5 


50.90 


26 


34.1 


93.38 


22.5 


72.50 


26 


22.5 


72.50 


12.5 


54.50 


27 


36 


96.80 


24.2 


75.56 


27 


25.5 


77.90 


14 


57.20 


28 


36.1 


96.98 


23 


73.40 


28 


26 


78.80 


16.2 


61.16 


29 


36 


96.80 


22.3 


72.14 


29 


23.4 


74.12 


14.1 


57.38 


30 


36.5 


97.70 


23 


73.40 


30 


16.1 


60.98 


12.4 


54.32 


31 


27.4 


81.32 


21.8 


71.24 













Absolute maximum, 37.1° C. (98.78° F.). 



Absolute minimum, 3° C. (37.40° F. 



Note. — The mean temperature in January, from three daily observations, was 27.4° C. (81.32° F. 
and that of June, 12.9° C. (55.22° F.). 



There have been some winters in which as many as sixteen frosts have occurred, 
while in others there have been no more than four, the average being ten, always 
occurring between May and September. 

While it is true that these frosts do injury to certain tropical plants and render the 
cultivation of some of them difficult, it is also true that many of these plants, such as 
the coffee tree, the banana, the sugar cane, the pineapple, and many others, resist the 
action of the frosts to a great extent. On the other hand, these frosts were beneficial 
by preventing the growth of weeds during the winter and also killing a multitude of 
destructive insects. 

Snow in Paraguay is entirely unknown, even in the highest mountains. 

Hailstones of large size sometimes fall, but not frequently. 

Strong windstorms generally accompany the rain during the summer, but are not 
so severe and injurious as on the seacoast and in the vicinity of the great mountains. 



PARAGUAY. 



19 



Lightning and thunder are often so severe that the whole of the sky seems to be 
on fire, the phenomenon being observed for several hours. 

Fogs occur very rarely, especially on the plains, but dew is very abundant. 

Droughts are very rare. During the twenty-three years preceding 1877 only one 
occurred, and that lasted nine months. This drought was not caused by an absolute 
lack of rain, but by the fact that the water which fell proved insufficient to compen- 
sate the loss caused by evaporation and filtration. The ordinary rainfall is 130 milli- 
meters per month, and on this occasion was only from 40 to 60 millimeters; but as the 
country is crossed by a great number of important streams the volume of whose waters 
does not depend upon the rainfall, the drought did not cause as much damage as it 
otherwise would have occasioned. No cattle was lost for want of water or Dasturage, 
and the injury done was merely to some crops. 

During the seven months of the summer of 1877-78 (from September, 1877, to 
April, 1878) rain fell in great quantities. The fall at times reached the enormous 
quantity of 2,421 millimeters, and in some cases the fall of a single rain was 170 
millimeters. The following statement shows the rainfall in millimeters at Asuncion 
during the period of 1877-1891, excluding, however, the years 1884, 1887, and 1890. 



Year. 






o 

a 
3 


< 


>> 

3 


a5 


i? 


on 
bo 

< 


Sh' 

o> 
£> 

a 

4) 

ft 

<U 
CO 


0) 
O 
O 

O 


a 

> 

O 


u 
.a 

a 

o 

ft 


3 

o 


1877 


390 

386 

215 

126 

190 

148 

46 

97 

113 

48 

223 

122 


33 
610 

32 
130 
161 

77 
127 

51 
124 

63 
171 
100 


127 
182 
232 
321 
214 
213 
115 
53 
184 
135 
233 
269 


249 
445 
105 
37 
209 
56 
74 
251 
187 
125 
186 
164 


68 

63 

192 

200 

175 

157 

155 

288 

48 

74 

176 

11 


14 
80 

144 
64 
94 

232 
51 
23 
91 
31 
78 

123 


94 
76 
79 

109 
99 
93 
15 
58 
43 
16 

121 
36 


48 

145 

37 

131 

39 

12 

5 

76 

29 

106 

15 

24 


158 

101 

29 

49 

81 

37 

167 

193 

82 

164 

32 

91 


133 
185 
193 
168 
200 
147 
99 
42 
154 
204 
231 
192 


253 
201 
105 
158 
128 

77 
202 

25 
156 
102 
157 

54 


262 
139 
221 

81 

78 
208 

89 
185 

64 
140 
200 
172* 


1,478 
2,613 
1,584 


1878 


1879 


1880 


1,574 
1,668 
1,457 


1881 


1882 


1883 


1,145 
1,342 


1885 


1886 


1,275 


1888 


1,208 


1889 


1,823 


1891 


1,358 






Total 


1,753 
146 


1,679 
140 


2,278 
190 


2,088 
174 


1, 607 
134 


1,025 
85 


839 
70 


667 
56 


1,184 
99 


1,948 
162 


1,618 
135 


1,839 
153 


18, 525 
1,544 





Note. — For the purpose of rendering the above statement clear, round numbers have been used. 
In place of fractions from 0.5 to 0.9 millimeters whole numbers have been inserted, and those from 
0.4 to 0.1 millimeters have been omitted. 



From the preceding statement the following conclusions can be drawn: 

First. During the twelve years of these observations not a single month has been 
without rain. 

Second. The maximum of the rainfall in one month (February, 1878) was 610 
millimeters, and the minimum (August, 1883) was 5 millimeters. 

Third. The month in which the heaviest rains occurred was March, and the least 
in August. The average rainfall in March was 190 millimeters, and in August 56. 

Fourth. The year of the heaviest rainfall (2,613 millimeters) was 1878; the least 
precipitation (1,145 millimeters) was in 1883. 

Fifth. The average rainfall in twelve years was 1,544 millimeters. 

Sixth. The order of the months according to the quantity of rainfall is as follows: 
March, 190 millimeters; April, 174; October, 162; December, 153; January, 146; 
February, 140; November, 135; May, 134; September, 99; June, 85; July, 70; 
August, 56. 

There is a scarcity of rain only during four months of the winter, but the rainfall 
in all the other months of the year exceeds 13*0 millimeters. 

During the year there are on an average 79 rainy days, 72 cloudy, and 214 clear. 



20 PARAGUAY. 

From these facts it would appear that Paraguay, as far as rainfall is concerned, has 
been highly favored by nature. A rainfall of over 1^ meters per year is a benefit 
which few subtropical countries are permitted to enjoy; and this benefit does not 
consist solely in the quantity of the water precipitated, but also in its convenient 
distribution during this period. The greatest rainfall in Paraguay occurs at a time 
when it is most urgently needed, while in some of the bordering countries the rains 
fall in winter, when they are not so much desired. On +he other hand, in some places 
of the bordering territory, such as Matto Grosso, etc., there are no -rains in winter. 
The rainfall at Montevideo, Buenos Ayres, and Cordoba is only about one-half that 
of Paraguay, and in Bahia Blanca it is only one-fourth. In Tucuman, which is pre- 
cisely in the same latitude as Paraguay, the rainfall is a third less, and in some 
months of the year there is no precipitation. 

The prevailing winds are from the north and the south, the former being warm 
and the latter cool. The northern winds come from the tropical interior of Brazil; 
the southern from the antartic zone, and at times are very cold. These two winds 
regulate the climate of Paraguay. When the northern wind blows for some time the 
temperature rises in summer to 30° C, 35° C, and occasionally 41° C, and in win- 
ter to 26° C. The air then becomes heavy, very humid, and often after some 
moments of calm a storm comes from the south and brings with it a heavy rain. The 
southern wind is cool, vivifying, and causes the mercury to drop from 10 to 15 degrees. 
This in a short time clears the atmosphere, and sometimes frosts occur on clear win- 
ter nights. After prevailing for some days in succession the southern winds some- 
times change to the east, and from the east to the north, but winds from the west are 
almost unknown. In recapitulation of the above statements, it may be said that 
although the Paraguayan winter renders the cultivation of some tropical plants diffi- 
cult, it also facilitates the cultivation of others, such as vegetables and fruits of the 
temperate zone. Owing to the peculiar climate of Paraguay, the productions of the 
tropical and temperate zones can be grown on its soil both in winter and in summer, 
producing for the inhabitants a diversity of food which rarely is found in other coun- 
tries. W^heat and barley grow side by side with the sugar cane and the coffee tree. 

Owing to the frequent changes of the wind, the northern ones being replaced by 
the cooling and stimulating southern breezes, the European does not lose his accus- 
tomed vigor as he does in the countries which are essentially tropical and where he 
becomes enervated by the debilitating action of the climate. 

Only three months in the year can properly be called warm, namely, December, 
January, and February, and sometimes March and November may be included in 
the group. All the other months are temperate, and some of them may properly 
be considered cool or cold. Taking everything into consideration it can be safely 
said that the climate of Paraguay offers every inducement to industrious people to 
secure the best possible results from the cultivation of the soil, and at the same time 
the country is one of the most pleasant and healthful in the world. 

In regard to the salubrity of Paraguay, Mr. Frank D. Hill, in his 
Report above mentioned, says: 

The climate, far from being unwholesome, as is the current opinion in the United 
States, is remarkable for its salubrity. Indeed, Paraguay enjoys a reputation as a 
sanitarium all over this part of South America. The hotels at Asuncion have been 
crowded all winter with invalids from Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. Dr. Stewart, 
Surgeon-general of the Paraguayan army during the late war, and now British Vice- 
consul at Asuncion, speaks as follows: 

If the absence of the principal zymotic diseases — yellow fever, typhus and typhoid, 
cholera and dysentery, which are all *nore or less endemic, or appear epidemically 
in Brazil and in the River Plate — has any relation to climate, then that of Paraguay 



PARAGUAY. 21 

is very highly favored, those diseases being almost unknown here. The only dis- 
eases which may be considered endemic in certain districts are goitre and elephan- 
tiasis grxcorum. The former is popularly attributed to the water, and the latter, 
considered more or less contagious, has hitherto been unaccounted for. As for 
Europeans, they enjoy good health in Paraguay; but it is necessary for them to live 
temperately and to avoid too much exposure to the summer heat, although sun- 
stroke is remarkably rare. I think natives suffer more from heat than Europeans. 
Vaccination is made compulsory by law, and there is no case of smallpox in the 
whole country at this moment. Before vaccination became obligatory smallpox 
made great ravages all over the country. 

Mr. Washburn, after a residence of seven years in Paraguay, says that it is proba- 
bly as healthy a country as any in the world. In this judgment I quite concur. 

I have found it impossible to do anything in the way of vital statistics. The gen- 
eral impression prevails that the births of males far exceed those of females, and this 
must be so, inasmuch as the great preponderance of the female portion of the popula- 
tion, noted and commented upon by all observers just after the war, has almost 
entirely disappeared; and of the male portion of the population a large majority 
consists of young men born since the suspension of hostilities. 

Mr. Ernest Van Bruyssel ( " La Republique de Paraguay," Bruxelles, 

1893) says: 

The climate of Paraguay is both pleasant and healthful. Yellow fever, typhus, 
diphtheria, cholera, and dysentery are unknown in the country. In certain districts 
cases of goitre and elephantiasis occasionally present themselves. Paludial fevers 
are rare, though marshes and swamps abound. Europeans are sure to enjoy good 
health if they do not expose themselves too much in summer to the action of the 
sun. The natives suffer from intestinal troubles on account of the immoderate use 
of tobacco, and of their usual living almost exclusively on vegetables. The small- 
pox did great havoc among the natives when vaccination was n6t, as it is now, 
compulsory. 

Another great authorit}^ on Paraguayan matters, Dr. E. De Bourgade 
La Dardye, a learned physician, who resided there for a long time, says 
the following: 

In an article in the " Revue du Paraguay" (April, 1888) I have already expressed 
my conviction of the salubrity of the country. Except smallpox, which is diminish- 
ing since the introduction of vaccination, there are no epidemic disorders; neither is 
there any malaria, except in the almost uninhabited districts toward the east, where 
an intermittent fever called ' ' chucho ' ' is prevalent. Endemic complaints are hardly 
known, and the cases of phthisis that have come to my knowledge are very rare. 
On the other hand, rheumatic affections of various kinds, disorders of the blood and 
stomach, and ansemia are far from uncommon; these, however, may be mainly attrib- 
uted to defective sanitary arrangements, or to the fact that the people sleep in drafts 
and are insufficiently clothed and badly fed ; but I am certain that any European 
observing hygienic rules might be altogether free from alarm. £ intend to publish 
the result of my own medical observations, and I believe that they will tend to sub- 
stantiate the assertion that Paraguay offers a promising field for emigration, the 
climate being both temperate and healthful, a combination that is not always found. 
I shall be gratified if my representations prevent my fellow-countrymen from being 
daunted by the fate of those who have been pioneers in the way of discovery, and if 
I succeed in encouraging them in their resolution to persevere and open up fresh 
scenes for commerce and agriculture. 



Chapter V. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

Consul Hill says, very aptly: 

In order to properly appreciate the present condition of Paraguay, the character 
of its institutions, and its future prospects, a cursory glance at its past is absolutely 
necessary. No nation has been more completely broken than, and none has so 
barely escaped utter extinction through the adverse fortunes of war as has this inter- 
esting Eepublic, and yet to-day, scarcely a score of years since the close of the late 
war * * * the country is on a firmer basis than ever before, and * * * can 
look to the future with complacency and some degree of confidence. 

Nothing is known of the primitive inhabitants of Paraguay. Sebas- 
tian Cabot was the first white man who, in 1527, navigated the Parana 
and the Paraguay rivers, going as far as the mouth of the Bermejo 
River in 1528, from where he returned to Spain. The first settlement 
in Paraguay was made in 1536 by a set of 300 Spanish colonists under 
the command of Juan de A} T olas, said settlement being a fort on what 
was supposed to be a route to the gold fields and silver rivers of Peru. 
This fort in the course of time became the city which is now the 
capital of the Republic, and was given the name of Asuncion because 
the work for its construction began on the 15th of August, a day set 
apart by the Church for the commemoration of the Assumption of 
the Blessed Mother of Our Lord. 

A} x olas having been killed by the Indians, was succeed edpro tern, by 
Capt. Martinez de Irala, one of his followers, and somewhat later, 
permanently, by Don Alvaro Nunez Cabeca de Vaca, who reached 
Asuncion in 1512. 

Hernando Arias de Saavedra was the first native of the country ever 
intrusted there by Spain with supreme authority. This was in 1591. 
He believed that the policy' of extermination, by war or otherwise, 
which thus far had been the only one adopted in regard to the native 
races, could, to the great advantage of all concerned, be set aside and 
replaced b} T one of moderation and fair treatment through religious 
influences. It was at his suggestion, in 1608, that King Philip III 
intrusted the Society of Jesus with the duty of cariying out the new 

policy. 

23 



24 PARAGUAY. 

The first Jesuits arriving in Asuncion were Fathers Salonio, Field, 
Ortega, Jose Cataldino, and Simon Maceta. The} T landed at Asuncion 
in 1609. 

The influence of the Society of Jesus continued more or less una- 
bated in Paragua}^ until the famous decree of King Charles III, issued 
in 1767, ordering the expulsion of all the members of that order from 
the dominions of Spain. 

The invasion of Spain by the French, the abdication of Charles IV 
in favor of his son Ferdinand VII, the captivity of the latter, and 
the accession of Joseph Bonaparte to the throne of Spain caused in 
Paraguay the same effect as in the rest of Spanish America, and paved 
the way to its independence. 

On the 14th of Ma} T , 1811, Pedro Juan Caballero, accompanied by a 
few men, attacked the barracks and took possession thereof without 
resistance of any kind on the part of the garrison. On the morning 
of the 15th he demanded Velazco, the Spanish Governor, not to make 
anj' opposition to his plans, to which demand Governor Velazco yielded 
in the end. A condition imposed upon him, which he accepted, was 
that he should associate himself with two citizens and divide with 
them his authority. The people adhered to the movement, and the 
revolution for independence was thus consummated. 

The "Junta Gubernativa," or Governing Board, of Paraguay was 
organized as follows: Governor Velazco, Chairman, and Gaspar Ro- 
driguez de Francia and Juan Valeriano Zeballos, members. 

On the 9th of June Governor Velazco was deposed by the troops, 
and Rodriguez Francia and Zeballos remained in charge of the Govern- 
ment until the Congress met. 

An Assembly of Paraguayan deputies, which inaugurated its sessions 
on the 11th of June, 1811, passed a resolution by which all allegiance 
to Spain was renounced, and a new u Junta Gubernativa," consisting 
of five members, who were Francisco Yegros, Gaspar de Francia, 
Pedro Juan Caballero, Francisco Javier Bogarin, and Fernando Mora 
was created. Yegros was made the President of this board and Mora 
the Secretary. 

A subsequent Congress, whose first meeting was held on October 1, 
1813, ratified this declaration of independence, resolved that Paraguay 
should thereafter be a Republic, devised and adopted for it a national 
flag, and vested the Government, or the executive branch thereof, in 
two Consuls, to be elected annually. 

The first Consuls so elected (October 12, 1813) were Don Jose Gas- 
par Rodriguez Francia, a Doctor of theology, and Don Fulgencio 
Yegros. Difficulties having arisen between these functionaries, a new 
Congress decided (October, 1814) to make Dr. Francia Dictator for 
three years. Before the expiration of this term another Congress 



PARAGUAY. 25 

(1816) proclaimed, by a decree, that Dr. Francia's dictatorship should 
be perpetual. 

Upon the death of Dr. Francia, on September 20, 181%-arProvisional 
Government was created at Asuncion, consisting of four military offi- 
cers of high rank under the presidency of the Mayor {Alcalde) of 
Asuncion, Don Jose Manuel Ortiz; but shortly afterwards (January 
23, 1811) this board, or junta, was superceded by a triumvirate, which 
in its turn was abolished by order of Congress (March 12, 1811) and 
replaced by the old Consulate. The Consuls chosen were Don Carlos 
Antonio Lopez and Don Mariano Roque Alonzo. The kitter was a 
soldier of. high rank. 

In 1841, at the expiration of the term of office of the two Consuls, 
the form of government was modified b} T Congress and a law was passed 
vesting the executive authorit} T in a Chief magistrate under the title of 
"President of the Republic" and serving for ten years. Don Carlos 
Antonio Lopez, having been elected for this position, completed his 
term of office in 1851, and then he was reelected, first for three } T ears 
and in 1857 for ten more. He died, however, on the 10th of Septem- 
ber, 1862, and the Government fell into the hands of his son, Don 
Francisco Solano Lopez, at first as Acting President, and almost imme- 
diately afterwards (October 16, 1862), by an Act of Congress, as Presi- 
dent of the Republic for ten }^ears. 

Upon the refusal by the Argentine Republic of the right of transit 
through her territory of certain troops, which were intended to oper- 
ate against Brazil, the Paraguayan Congress issued (March 18, 1865) a 
declaration of war against the former country, and this brought about 
an alliance between Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay, 
by whose action Paraguay was almost annihilated. 

Lopez died on the field of battle on the 1st of March, 1870. 

A committee of 21 prominent citizens undertook the reorganization 
of the country. The administration of the Government was tempo- 
rarily intrusted to a triumvirate, consisting of Don Cirilo Antonio 
Rivarola, Don Carlos Loizaga, and Don Jose Diaz Bedo}^. These 
gentlemen worked faithfully, and fulfilled their delicate mission to 
the satisfaction of all. The difficulties of their work had been ren- 
dered graver by the fact that the enemy had not yet evacuated the 
Paraguayan territory. The old electoral districts were reestablished 
as far as practicable, and a constitutional convention, consisting of 56 
delegates elected by the people, was called to convene. This conven- 
tion met on the 15th of August, 1870, and the Constitution which it 
framed and proclaimed on the 21th of November following is still in 
force. 

Don Cirilo Antonio Rivarola was elected President under the new 
regime, and ever since the functions of the Executive have been sue- 



26 PAKAGUAY. 

cessively performed by Don Salvador Jovellanos, Don Juan Bautista 
Gill, who died while in office on April 12, 1877; Don Higinio Uriarte, 
who was called as Vice-President of the Republic to complete the term 
of President Gill; Don Candido Bareiro; Gen. Don Bernardino Caba- 
llero; Gen. Don Patricio Escobar; Don Juan G. Gonzalez, elected 
November 25, 1890; Don Marcos Morinigo, who assumed the reins of 
the Government on June 9, 1894; Don Juan Bautista Egusquiza, elected 
November 25, 1891; Don Emilio Aceval, elected November 25, 1898; 
and Don Hector Carvallo, Vice-President, called by Congress to act 
as President on January 9, 1902, whose term of office will expire 
November 25, 1902, when his successor will be elected. 



Chapter VI. 



POPULATION, IMMIGRATION, AND COLONIZATION. 

According- to an official census, the accuracy of which has been occa- 
sionally disputed, the population of Paraguay in 1857 was 1,337,439 
inhabitants. As the first census, taken in 1796, during the days of the 
Spanish rule, gave only 97,i80 inhabitants, the conclusion has to be 
drawn that the increase of the population in that countiy during a 
period of eighty-two years, if the above figures are correct, was 
1,239,959 inhabitants, or a little over 15,121 per year. This progress 
was stopped, however, by the disastrous war of 1865-1870, when Para- 
guay had to contend with the united forces of Brazil, the Argentine 
Republic, and the Republic of Uruguay, and sacrificed, in proportions 
never heard of before in modern times, the greatest part of her chil- 
dren. The census taken in 1873, perhaps exaggerated, as has been 
charged, but official, gave no more than 231,079 inhabitants for the 
whole countiy, out of whom only 28,746 were men, and no more than 
106,254 women over 15 years of age. 

In March, 1887, another official census, also said to be imperfect, was 
taken, and it gave a population of 329,645 inhabitants, without count- 
ing 60,000 semicivilized Indians, or the uncivilized ones, who are 
supposed to number 70 000, if not more. 

Out of the said total* of Paraguayans in 1886, 110,280 were men and 
153,471 were women. 

The census taken in 1899 a gave the following results: 
Population: 

Capital (Asuncion), 51,719, out of whom 4,541 were foreigners. 
Rural districts, 583,852, out of whom 13,642 were foreigners. 

Total population 635, 571 

Foreign population 18, 188 

This population chiefly consists of the following: 

(1) White people, descendants of the Spanish conquerors, or the off- 
spring of their mixture with the native races and the immigrants who 
settled in the country during the last thirty years. The assimilation 
of these ethnical types has produced a handsome national type resem- 
bling the European. 

a Message of the President of the Republic of Paraguay to the honorable Congress of the Nation, 
April 1. 1901. 

27 



28 PARAGUAY. 

(2) Pure Indians, descendants of the original "Guaranies," who 
inhabited the country at the time of the conquest. This element has 
also sustained material changes, owing to Christian influences, for 
more than three centuries and a half. 

In 1865 there were negroes and mulattoes at Emboscada, Tabapy, 
and Aregui; but the negroes have now almost completely disappeared. 

The only tribe of the Guarani nation which still remains in a savage 
condition is that of the Caiguaes, which inhabit the northwest of the 
eastern part of the Republic. 

The wild tribes known b} T the names of Mba} T aes, Tobas, Lenguas, 
Chiriguanos, Sanapanas, Anguites, Chamacocos, Guanaes, Machicuis, 
and Macaes, numbering about 100,000, inhabit El Chaco, or the western 
part of the country. 

In Paraguay, no more nor less than in all the other States of Central 
and South America, the future of the country depends upon the increase 
of its population, and the possibility to take advantage thereby of the 
resources which nature with a prodigal hand has lavished upon its 
soil. Therefore it is not surprising that the efforts of the Government 
and individual patriotism always turn into that direction, and give the 
subjects of immigration and colonization the greatest preference. 

The attention of the National Congress was strongly called to this 
fact in the Message which Senor Don Juan G. Gonzales, President of 
the Republic, transmitted to that body on the 1st of April, 1893. He 
said, among other things: 

The current of immigration is weak, if compared with the advantages which the 
country offers and with our need of labor. 

The number of immigrants arrived in 1892 was 1,723. Most of them were agricul- 
turists, and many paid their fare. All have found at once remunerative work, but 
the greatest number have preferred to settle in the "colonies." 

The development of immigration will always be slow, if the transportation of 
the immigrants from their own countries to the territory of the Republic is not 
paid by us. Immigration does not lose its voluntary character because the Gov- 
ernment, at the request of the European immigrant, pays his fare. To expect from 
the workman, the agriculturist, or any other person belonging to the laboring class 
of Europe, who, pressed by the necessity of leaving his home, comes here and takes 
advantage of our most hospitable and liberal colonization laws, to look for work 
and in pursuit of welfare or fortune, to possess sufficient means to pay for his trans- 
portation to our soil, is to condemn ourselves to see immigration develop itself very 
slowly, and put off without reason the increase of the population and of the national 
wealth. 

Rather than large numbers of immigrants we need that class which is useful to the 
country. And it is for this reason that the Minister of foreign relations decided in 
1891 that free tickets should be furnished then and thereafter to all immigrants 
who should prove by certificates issued in their respective countries that they are 
agriculturists by occupation. 

I believe that we must, as far as our resources may permit, promote immigration 
both by making new concessions and by incurring new expenses, and that we must 
not feel discouraged in the least for the little success which is said to have been 
obtained in the establishment of "colonies " and in oiir efforts to attract immigration. 

We must remember that whatever is expended for this purpose, if expended hon- 
estly and intelligently, is in reality invested at rates of great profit for the future. 



PAKAGtJAY. 29 

The appropriations made on the 5th of October ultimo enabled the Executive to 
support the "colonies" in existence, and to establish new ones in well-selected places 
and in close proximity to good means of communication, thus permitting the colo- 
nists to bring to the market easily and at small expense the products of their industry. 

During the year 1892 the following "colonies" have been established, either by the 
Government or by private enterprise, namely: The Catorce de Mayo, a colony estab- 
lished at Villa Rica, where a large plantation of ramie has already been started; the 
Guillermo Tell, a colony on the Upper Parana, established on public lands granted 
for this purpose by the Government to Dr. Moses Bertoni; the Santa Clara, a colony 
established in the province or department of Caazapa, * * * and the Nueva 
Australia, a colony established on a tract of land in the department of Caazapa and 
Mbocayaty, granted to the Australian Colonization Company. * * * 

In regard to the ' ' colonies ' ' formerly established, I must say that they are flourishing 
and progressing daily. 

Villa Hayes has acquired such conditions of life and self-support as to permit the 
Executive, in compliance with a provision of the colonization law, to create there a 
municipal corporation and an office of justice of the peace. 

The President Gonzalez Colony astonishes the traveler for the degree of progress 
it has made in such a short time, thanks to the fertility of the soil and the special 
agricultural ability of its inhabitants. A village having already an active commerce 
has been established within its limits. 

I have had occasion personally to contemplate in that place, yesterday a desert and 
now a flourishing colony, the gratifying spectacle of hundreds of European colonists 
of all races and nationalities living in peace and perfect harmony with the native 
element, accommodating themselves to our national habits and singing the national 
anthems upon the arrival there of the Chief Magistrate of the Republic. This gave 
me the greatest satisfaction, because I saw in it the fruitful germs of the future great- 
ness of our country. 

Let us convince ourselves that voluntary immigration will not reach the bounda- 
ries of our territory unless it is guided by the hand of the nation and attracted by 
liberal concessions. 

Colonization by private enterprise will always follow the footsteps of the official, if 
the latter is successful. 

These patriotic words of the President of the Republic merely 
reechoed the universal feeling of the country. The eagerness with 
which the Paraguayan people have undertaken the construction of great 
public works, especially railroads, and the concession to Europeans and 
other emigrants of almost untold facilities to come to Paraguay and 
take advantage of its wealth, are sufficient to prove it. 

Great attention has also been paid to making the country known 
both in Europe and in America, as no one doubts that as soon as the 
capabilities of Paraguay are fully recognized in the European and 
other markets, ample means will be secured to undertake all kinds of 
useful works and to supply the country with all that is required for 
its progress. 

The following are the advantages accorded to immigrants by- the 
Government of Paraguay: 

1. Free transportation from the ports of Buenos Ayres or Mon- 
tevideo. 

2. Entry free of duty of individual baggage, furniture, tools, seeds, 
and one gun for each immigrant. 



30 PAEAGUAY. 

3. Lodging and board for five days at the expense of the Govern- 
ment at the Immigration Hotel. 

4. Free passage for the immigrant from Asuncion to the place of 
destination, if on railway or river. 

5. A grant of 16 squares of land to each immigrant at the nominal 
price of 15 cents per square, equal to about 8 cents per acre. If the 
immigrant is unmarried, he shall be granted only one-half of this land. 

Nearly ail the public lands were sold between 1885 and 1901. Those 
remaining unsold consist of small tracts suitable for agriculture. The 
Government has set apart portions of land in several parts of the 
Republic, to be used for colonization purposes. 



Demonstrative Tables op the Population of Paraguay. 

In No. 9 of the "Review of Paraguay," the following statistical study of the popul- 
ation of the Republic, based upon the census of 1899, was published. 
Its conclusions, synthetically, are the following: 

First. Density of population per square kilometer 1. 839 

Second. Nationality: 

Paraguayans per 1,000. . 968. 92 

Foreigners do 31. 08 

Third. Sex: 

Men do.... 471.29 

Women do. . . . 528. 71 

Fourth. Civil state: 

Single do 444. 20 

Married do 528. 40 

Widowed do ... . 27. 40 

Fifth. Instruction: 

Literate do 369. 50 

Illiterate do 630. 50 

This study was reprinted in the local press, and has been lately annotated and 
amplified with new data collected by the Government. 
The following synopsis may be found of interest: 

i. — density. 

The population of the country it as follows: 

Population, enumerated by names. 

Capital of the Republic 51, 719 

Rural districts 439, 000 

490, 719 

Population estimated. 

Population of Bahia Negra, Fuerte Olimpo, Government works, 

and private colonies of the western region (Chaco) 19, 852 

Population of the Yerbales 25, 000 

Indians 100,000 

144,852 

Total 635, 571 

It appears from these figures that the density of population in Paraguay is 2.01 per 
square kilometer or 0.61 per square kilometer more than in the Argentine Republic. 



PARAGUAY. 



31 



II. NATIONALITY. 

The population distributed by nationality is as follows: 

Native population. 





Number. 


Percent. 


Civilized 


517,285 
100, 000 


80.93 


Indians, estimated 


16.20 






Total _ 


617,285 


97.13 







Foreign population. 





Number. 


Per cent. 


European 


6,855 
11,431 


1.07 


American 


1.80 








18, 286 


2.87 


Total 


635, 571 









Thus the total proportion of the foreign element is 28.70 per thousand. 

The proportion of nationalities in the rural districts and in the capital is as follows: 





Natives. 


Foreigners. 


Total. 


Capital 


47, 075 
570, 210 


4,644 

13, 642 


51, 719 


Rural districts 


583, 852 




Total 


617, 285 


18, 286 


635, 571 





III. — SEX. 



The total proportion of the sexes in the rural districts and in the capital is as 
follows: 





Rural dis- 
tricts. 


Capital. 


Total. 


Males 


206, 991 


92 174. 


230 165 


Females 


232,009 j 28,545 


260, 554 




Total 


439, 000 


51,719 


490 719 







The proportion per thousand is as follows: 





Rural dis- 
tricts. 


Capital. 


Total. 


Males 


471.29 

528. 71 


448. 07 
551.93 


469 03 


Females 


530 97 







32 



PARAGUAY. 



The excess of the female sex in the total population as enumerated in the census is 
61.94 per thousand (6.19 per cent). 

The birth rate per thousand in the latest years is as follows: 





Capital. 


Rural dis- 
tricts. 


Total. 


Males 


506. 40 
493. 60 


484. 80 
515. 20 


485. 12 


Females 


514. 88 



IV. CIVIL STATE. 

The figures referring to the civil state are as follows: 





Rural dis- 
tricts. 


Capital. 


Total. 


Single 


113, 939 

135, 566 

7,050 


18, 167 
6,101 
1,682 


132, 106 


Married 

Widowed 


141, 667 
8,732 






Total 


256, 555 
182, 445 


25. 950 
25, 769 


282, 505 
208, 214 


Under age 




Total 


439, 000 


51, 719 


490, 719 





The proportion per thousand is the following: 



Rural dis- 
tricts. 



Single 444. 20 

Married j 528. 40 

Widowed 27. 40 




Total. 



467. 62 

501. 47 

30.91 



V. — EDUCATION. 

The figures corresponding to the total population as enumerated are as follows: 



Rural dis- 
tricts. 



Literate I 135,219 

Illiterate I 230,836 



Capital. 



26, 899 
15,916 



Total 366,055 j 42,815 

Less than 5 years of age 72, 944 6, 562 

Floating population 2, 342 



Total j 439, 000 



51,719 



Total. 



162, 118 

286, 752 



408, 870 

79, 507 

2,342 



490, 719 



The total proportion per thousand is as follows: 





Rural dis- 
tricts. 


Capital. 


Total. 


Literate 


369. 40 
630. 60 


628. 26 
371. 74 


396. 52 


Illiterate 


• 603.48 







PARAGUAY. 

Population by nationalities. 



33 



Rural dis- 
tricts. 



Capital. 



Total. 



1 . Paraguayans 


425, 358 

8,061 

1,502 

1,207 

428 

682 

401 

384 

383 

73 

112 

62 

78 

62 

47 

24 

19 

31 

14 

26 

11 

12 

12 

5 

2 


47, 075 

1,274 

1,245 

177 

718 

234 

328 

220 

60 

127 

86 

61 

12 

16 


472, 433 


2. Argentines 


9, 335 


3. Italians 

4. Brazilians 

5. Spaniards 

6. Germans 

7. French 


2,747 

1,384 

1,146 

916 

729 


8. Uruguayans 

9. English . 

10. Austrians 

11. Swiss 


604 
443 
200 

198 


12. Portuguese .. 


123 




90 


14 Chileans 


78 




47 


16 Hollanders 


17 

18 

5 

13 


41 




37 


18. Danes 


36 




27 


20. Scotch 


26 




10 
2 


21 


22. Swedes 


14 


23. Arabs 


12 


24. Greeks. 


4 
6 

8 


9 


25. Turks 


8 


26. Peruvians 


8 


27. Irish 


4 


4 


28. Japanese 


1 
1 
1 


1 


29. Mexican . 


1 


30. Norwegian - 


1 








Total 


439, 000 


51,719 


490, 719 



POPULATION BY NATIONALITIES IN THE CAPITAL BY DISTRICTS. 





Native. 


Foreign. 


Total. 


Catedral 


10, 534 
10, 034 
12,432 
2,021 
5,399 
3,516 
2,141 


1,214 

3,002 

794 

76 
287 

68 
201 


11, 748 


FIncarnacion 


13, 036 

13, 226 

2,097 

5,686 

3, 584 


San Roque 


Recoleta 


Trinidad 


Lambare 


Floating population 


2,342 




Total 


46, 077 


5,642 


51,719 



RECAPITULATION. 



City 

Suburbs 

Floating population 

Total 




38, 010 

11,367 

2,342 



51,719 



85a— 02- 



34 



PAEAGUAY. 



Native and foreign population by sexes. 
RURAL DISTRICTS. 





Native. 


Foreign. 


TotaL 


Males 


198, 327 
227, 031 


8,664 
4,978 


206, 991 
232, 009 


Females 




Total 


425, 358 


13, 642 


439, 000 



CAPITAL. 



Males 


20, 196 
26, 879 


2,978 
1,666 


23, 174 


Females 


28, 545 




Total 


47, 075 


4,644 


51, 719 



POPULATION BY SEXES AT THE CAPITAL (BY DISTRICTS). 





Males. 


Females. 


Total. 


Catedral 

Encarnacion 


5,277 
6,194 
5,524 
919 
2,524 
1,694 
1,042 


6,471 
6,842 
7,702 
1,178 
3,162 
1,890 
1,300 


11, 748 
13, 036 
13, 226 
2,097 
5,686 
3, 584 
2,342 


San Roque 


Recoleta 

Trinidad 

Lambare - 


Floating population 






Total 


23, 174 


28,545 


51, 719 







RECAPITULATION. 



City 


16, 995 
5,137 
1,042 


21,015 
6,230 
1,300 


38, 010 
11, 367 


Suburbs 


Floating population 


2,342 




Total 


23, 174 


28, 545 


51, 719 







Proportion of sexes, by age. 
RURAL DISTRICTS. 



Age. 


Males. 


Females. 


Total. 


Males. 


Females. 


Oto 5 


35, 367 
52, 269 

20, 862 
59, 112 

21, 388 
8,307 
5,591 
2,395 
1,223 

456 
20 


37,578 

57, 231 

23, 045 

63, 843 

24, 128 

10, 618 

8,604 

3,945 

2,011 

938 

79 


72, 945 

109, 500 

43, 907 

122, 955 

45, 516 

18, 925 

14, 195 

6,340 

3,234 

1,394 

99 


Per cent. 
48.48 
48.65 
47.72 
48.08 
46.99 
44.00 
39.38 
37.78 
37.82 
32.73 
22.47 


Per cent. 
51.52 


6 to 14 


51.35 


15 to 17 


52.28 


18 to 35 


51.92 


36 to 45 


53.01 


46 to 50 


56.00 


51 to 60 


60.62 


61 to 70 


62.22 


71 to 80 


62.18 


81 to 99 


67.27 


100, etc 


77.53 






Total 


206, 991 


232, 009 


439, 000 













PARAGUAY. 



35 



Proportion of sexes, by age — Continued. 

CAPITAL. 



Age. 


Males. 


Females. 


Total. 


Males. 


Females. 


Oto 1 

Ito 5 

5 to 10 

10 to 15 

15 to 20 

20 to 25 


564 

2,599 

2,997 

2,605 

3,432 

2,406 

1,474 

1,209 

1,609 

964 

700 

355 

267 

129 

78 

31 

26 

11 

9 

2 


557 

2,842 

3,107 

3,286 

3,780 

2,635 

2,214 

1,706 

2,512 

1,496 

1,410 

625 

799 

231 

257 

103 

146 

40 

56 

15 

19 

3 

1 

1 

1 


1,121 

5,441 

6,104 

5,891 

7,212 

5,041 

3,688 

2,915 

4,121 

2,460 

2,110 

980 

1,066 

360 

335 

134 

172 

51 

65 

17 

19 

3 

1 

1 

1 


Per cent. 
50.31 
47.07 
49.09 
44.21 
47.'58 
47.72 
39.96 
41.47 
39.04 
39.18 
33.17 
36.22 
25.10 
36.58 
23.28 
23.13 
15.11 
21.56 
13.84 
11.76 


Per cent. 
49.69 
52.93 
50.91 
55.79 
52.42 
52.28 


25 to 30 


60.04 


30 to 35 

35 to 40 


58.53 
60.96 


40 to 45 


60.82 


45 to 50 


66.83 


50 to 55 


63.78 


55 to 60 


74.90 


60 to 65 


63.42 


65 to 70 


76.72 


70 to 75 


76.87 


75 to 80 


84.89 


80 to 85 


78.44 


85 to 90 

90 to 95 


86.16 

88.24 


95 to 100 


100. 00 


100 to 105 


100. 00 


105 to 110 \ 




100. 00 


110 to 115 


100. 00 


115 to 120 




100. 00 












21, 467 


27, 842 


49, 309 
2,410 






Not computed in the table . . 
















Total 


51, 719 

















RECAPITULATION BY PERIODS OF TIME ACCORDING TO AGE AND SEX. 



Periods. 


Capital. 


Rural districts. 


Total. 


Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Period of 1870-1900 


Per cent. 
46.20 
39.30 
12.79 


Per cent. 
53.80 
60.70 
87.21 


Per cent. 
48.23 
45.50 
32.96 


Per cent. 
51.77 
54.50 
67.04 


Per cent. 
48.12 
44.94 
37.22 


Per cent. 
51.88 


Period of 1850-1870 


55.06 


Period of 1850 


62.78 






Averages 


44.80 


55.20 


47.13 


52.87 


46.90 


53.10 











Differences. 






Capital. 


Rural districts. 


Total. 


Period of 1870-1900 


Per cent. 

7.60 
21.40 
74. 42 


Per cent. 

3.54 

9.00 

34.08 


Per cent. 

3.76 


Period of 1850-1870 


10.12 


Period of 1850 


25.56 






Averages 


10.40 


5.74 


6.19 







36 PARAGUAY. 

Proportion of sexes, by age — Continued. 

POPULATION WITHIN THE AGE OF MILITARY SERVICE. 

Rural districts: 

Native males from 18 to 35 years (in 1899) '. 56. 156 

Native males from 36 to 45 years (in 1899) 19, 838 

Native males from 46 to 50 years (in 1899) 7, 268 

83, 262 

Capital : 

Native males from 18 to 35 years (in 1900) : 5. 583 

Native males from 36 to 45 years (in 1900) 1 , 965 

Native males from 46 to 50 years (in 1900) 469 

8,017 

Total: 

Native males from 18 to 35 years 61, 739 

Native males from 36 to 45 years 21, 803 

Native males from 46 to 50 years 7, 737 

91, 279 

The number of native males less than 18 years of age of the enumerated population 
is as follows: 



Capital (cen- 
sus 1900). 



Rural dis- | 
tricts (census; Total. 
1899). 



From 15 to 17 years 1, 922 

From 6 to 14 years 5, 201 

From 1 to 5 years 3, 041 

' Total 10, 164 

I 



20, 075 
51, 327 
35, 037 



106, 439 



21,997 

56, 528 
38, 078 



116,603 



Civil state. 

RURAL DISTRICTS, EXCLUDING MINORS OF 14 YEARS. 



Native. 



Males: 

Single 48, 035 

Married 62, 484 

Widowed 1, 444 

111,963 

Females: 

Single 59, 546 

Married ' 68, 594 

Widowed 5, 106 

133, 246 

Total 245, 209 



Foreign. 



4,284 

2,899 

209 



■,392 



2,074 

1,589 

291 



3,954 



11,346 



PARAGUAY. 



37 



Civil state — Continued. 

RECAPITULATION. 





Native. 


Foreign. 


Total. 


Males and females: 

Single 


107, 581 

131, 078 

6,550 


6,358 

4,488 

500 


113, 939 


Married 

Widowed 


135, 566 
7,050 






Total 

Under age 


245, 209 


11, 346 


256, 555 
182, 445 








Total enumerated 







439, 000 









CAPITAL. 





Native. 


Foreign. 


Males : 

Single 


6,160 

2,062 

529 


1,105 


Married 


1,018 


Widowed 


103 








8,751 


2,226 


Females: 

Single 


10, 640 

2,373 

945 


262 


Married 


648 


Widowed 


105 








13, 958 


1, 015 


Total : 


22, 709 


3,241 







RECAPITULATION. 



• 


Native. 


Foreign. 


Total. 


Males and females: 

Single 


16, 800 
4,435 
1,474 


1,367 

1,666 

208 


18, 167 


Married 


6,101 


Widowed 


1,682 






Total 


22, 709 


3,241 


25, 950 


Under age 


25, 769 










Total enumerated 






51, 719 


1 i 





38 



PAKAGUAY. 



Education. 

RURAL DISTRICTS (EXCLUDING MINORS OF 5 YEARS). 





Native. 


Foreign. 


Literate: 

Males 


67, 884 
61, 945 


3,544 


Females 


1,846 








129, 829 


5,390 


Illiterate: 

Males 


94, 409 
128, 637 


4, 810 
2,980 


Females 








223, 046 


7,790 


Total 


352, 875 


13, 180 







RECAPITULATION. 





Literate. 


Illiterate. 


Total. 


Males 


71, 428 
63, 791 


99, 219 
131,617 


170, 647 
195, 408 


Females 






Minors of 5 years 


135, 219 


230, 836 


366, 055 
72, 945 








Total enumerated 






439, 000 









CAPITAL. 





Native. 


Foreign. 


Literate: 

Males 


12, 276 
11, 060 


2,889 


Females 


1,274 








23, 336 


3,563 


Illiterate: 

Males 


4,032 
11, 252 


372 


Females 


260 








15, 284 


632 


Total 


38, 620 


4,195 







RECAPITULATION. 





Literate. 


illiterate. 


Total. 


Males 


14, 565 
12, 334 


4,404 
11,512 


18, 969 


Females 


23, 846 






Minors of 5 years 


26, 899 


15, 916 


42, 815 
6,562 


Floating population 






2,342 










Total enumerated 




j 51,719 



PARAGUAY. 39 

CONCLUSI ONS. 

The principal conclusions that may be drawn from these statistics are the following: 

First. From 1870 to 1900 (thirty years after the war) the population of the country 
almost tripled itself. 

Second. Nevertheless, there is an enormous difference between the present popu- 
lation and the number the country is capable of sustaining (68,900,000). 

Third. This difference and the small proportion of foreign element (2.87 per cent) 
demands an increase in the immigration. 

Fourth. The male and female population is being rapidly and progressively equal- 
ized, being nearly at par. 

Fifth. The number of celibates is less than that of the married. 

Sixth. The number of illiterates does not greatly exceed the number of literates. 

Seventh. The population is predominantly native. 

Eighth. The Indian population represents an insignificant minority of the whole. 



Chapter VII. 

NATIVE RACES. 

By Dr. J. Hampden Porter. 

Assuming it to be an established truth that in every country inhab- 
ited by primitive human beings those natural features the region 
possesses control their development, a first step toward ascertaining 
what these now practically extinct Paraguayan Indians east of the 
Paraguay River were, when first mentioned in Spanish Annals, demands 
some inquiry into climatic, physiographic, and other influences acting 
upon them. Recent political delimitations make this an inland state; 
but formerly peoples affiliated with its indigenous tribes roamed along 
the Atlantic provinces for long distances north and south of modern 
Paraguay. So far as the flora or fauna connect themselves with groups 
belonging to surrounding territories, Brazilian affinities predominate, 
though temperate latitudes soon arrested a southward extension of 
many important tropical species, and, generally considered, this land 
may be regarded as unique in respect of its animal forms, spontaneous 
vegetable productions, meteorological, hydrographic, and topograph- 
ical phenomena. 

Ethnological determinations, which have nothing to do with bound- 
ary lines, are yet somewhat complicated here by changes in these latter. 
Several groups were chorographically dismembered through shifts 
of frontier, and while studying anthropological traits geographical 
data can not be strictly adhered to. As a home for men who depended 
upon the natural endowments of their habitat almost exclusively, few 
provinces anj^where present greater advantages, and consequently 
there was, comparatively speaking, an unusually dense population, 
both nomadic and agricultural. Sedentary tribes found enough 
food to prevent any sensible diminution in numbers during pre- 
historic times, while wandering bands, encountering no physical 
barriers that prevented ingression or hampered movement after 
entrance, migrated into so desirable an area from all sides. As 
a result of its accessibility and of those waterways intersecting it 
throughout, together with the fact that no impassable deserts, moun- 
tains, or forests existed, isolation among aggregates became excep- 

41 



42 PAEAGUAY. 

tional, and intermixture was nearly universal. Before examining the 
issues involved in location, however, a more precise mention of that 
environment to whose influences these tribes were exposed is necessary 
for appreciating conditions which either inured to their advantage or 
rendered nugatory such attempts at development as they initiated. 

Although all Paraguay has* about the same temperature, rainfall, 
river systems, soils, and proportion of sterile to arable lands, its east- 
ern and western sections exhibit important contrasts that render them 
by no means equally desirable habitations for men who could effect very 
little change in their surroundings. Gran Chaco, lying west from the 
Paraguay River, is a prairie country, its woodland area being much 
less extensive than of Paragua} T o Oriental. These plains have always 
been wastes, occupied by broken bands who took refuge there, and 
are conterminous with the Chiquitos plains, Pampas, and Patagonian 
deserts. There was more cultivable territory here, more food of all 
kinds than in Argentina or farther south; but natural supplies were 
insufficient to support numerous peoples, while no concentration 
could possibry take place without an artificial increase of productions 
dependent upon irrigation works far beyond reach of savages like 
these. 

The Banda Oriental, however, is quite different from the Chaco 
undulations. Upheaval proceeded to a greater extent, and with sub- 
sequent erosion formed broken surfaces everywhere — valleys, hills, 
ravines — with more considerable heights, which represent an extension 
of the Sierra Amambay and Caaguaza. There are immense forests in 
this region, exceedingly large jungle growths owing to atmospheric 
humidity, with an exceptionally great number of specific vegetable 
forms. Indeed, the flora and fauna also in Paraguay proper, much 
surpass those of its transriverine province. So well fitted for human 
occupation was this territory in climate, soil, productions, and geo- 
graphical features, that it supported an unusual population before 
Spanish invasion. Southward from that high, central plateau, which 
is formed by a prolonged and constricted part of Brazilian table- 
lands, lies what is called the Paraguayan Mesopotamia — at first 
an extensive alluvial tract between the Parana and Paraguay rivers, 
but connecting with Chaco expanses, and ultimately widening into 
those vast champaigns which finally verge upon antarctic parallels. 
Spaniards translated the Greek expression for a land bordered by 
streams literally, calling this space Entre Rios. It is set with lakes — 
Neembucu, Spoa, Ipacarai — to a considerable extent forested, and like- 
wise studded by enormous swamps, such as Estero Bellaco, Caruba, or 
Aquaraati, produced through overflows in that vast river system inter- 
secting its entire expanse. These facts of themselves suffice to show 
how hopeless thp, prospect for improvement was among unevolved 
human beings situated in a country so cut up and drenched periodically 
with rain or flood waters. 



PARAGUAY. 43 

What has been said thus far relates to those more important natural 
phenomena whose influence upon native races must have been most 
decisive; since apart from traits which may be referred to some pri- 
mordial constitution of body and mind preserved through heredity, 
ethnic character merely expresses physical or psychical specializations 
organized during an intercourse with particular surroundings. Pri- 
marily, every aggregate is confronted by nature in some definite 
phase, and has the alternative of success or failure, continued exist- 
ence or destruction, accordingly as it can adjust itself to external 
factors. Here, however, natural selection could not eliminate enough 
self-sustaining energy from unfit masses to make prolonged progress 
possible. There were "variations from an average" of disability, but 
they neither went on nor proved capable of resisting- adverse circum- 
stances. It now remains to examine the personnel of these aborigines 
and inquire into those vicissitudes to which they were exposed during 
historic times. 

The present state of ethnological classification as illustrated by 
tribal groupings throughout South America is not an encouraging 
subject for contemplation, racial relationships all over this country 
being in an exemplary condition of confusion. Anthropometry and 
linguistics have both failed to supply data upon which any agreement 
concerning stocks or their offshoots could be arrived at. Neverthe- 
less, Who inhabited Paraguay? is a question demanding attention, 
even while certain beforehand that no. reply conveying positive infor- 
mation upon tribal affinities can be given. Forms of speech and 
special structural peculiarities have no necessary connection. Almost 
all those anatomical minutiae heretofore applied to identification 
among masses change with every shift of position, variation in 
social degree, or new intermixture, and since these peoples have been 
systematically subdivided with reference to both language and bodily 
conformations whose special features obviously depended upon con- 
tingencies which nobody knew anything about, the uncertainties above 
mentioned are not inexplicable. 

That so-called Tupi-Guaranian family, said to be distributed over 
Brazil from its western border to the Atlantic and thence extending 
southward into Buenos Ayres, has been long recognized and is authen- 
ticated by Ehrenreich and Yon den Steinen as one of four great Brazilian 
groups, including all the inextricably entangled indigenes occupying 
that region. Natives calling themselves Tupinambas — warriors of the 
Tupis — also live within this latter territory, but no associated tribes 
bearing their family name. That also disappears in Paraguay, which 
is said to be for the most part peopled by Guaranis, who are regarded 
as autochthonous there; De Quatrefages deriving Tupinambas from 
them, and likewise differentiating certain communities belonging to 
Brazil under the collective designation of Tupi-Caribs. This is another 
combination of the original Guaranis, and judging by what has been 



44 PARAGUAY. 

done already, it looks like an accident that a number of groups were 
not united with this family in eastern Paraguay, where there were 
equally legitimate reasons for appending names to the dominant aggre- 
gate's title. 

Technically, family is not used with equal strictness in anthropology 
and natural history, yet it always implies blood relationship and com- 
mon resemblances between members of one stock. As a matter of fact, 
however, from the Mexican Gulf southward to Paraguay tribes strik- 
ingly unlike and obviously alien have been included within one or 
another theoretical group because their idioms corresponded, while 
throughout this area peoples indistinguishable physically, and not 
assignable to separate culture planes, are put into different families on 
the ground that they employ diverse vocabularies." It remains to see 
how far this method of ethnological classification has been applied in 
the country at present under consideration, and if the races of Para- 
guay are arranged upon similar principles. 

Theoretically this region was inhabited throughout most of its extent 
by Guarani tribes, and what is written concerning them implies, or 
takes for granted, that the}^ formed a natural group so connected 
through consanguinity as to constitute an actual family. It appears 
upon examination as if this view might be questioned. At all events 
its discussion will involve everything which relates to these natives. 
Padre Ruiz and Gonzalves Diaz in compiling their vocabularies began 
a work which philologists have carried on until there is no doubt that 
one of the South American stock languages was here spread among 
numerous communities. Such an admission, however, means just so 
much as those words convey and no more. The linguistic stem 
referred to is Guarani, which, being homologous with Brazilian Tupi, 
has been incorporated with the latter and erected into what Keane 
calls a wt radically distinct linguistic group 1 ' 6 — Tupi-Guaranian. He 
also suggests that ethnic arrangements resting on the presence of these 
allied idioms may prove misleading, because a lingua franca, often 
strangely regarded as an invention made by missionary priests, is 
widely disseminated in both countries, where it frequently supplants 

"Critically, race type maybe only an ideal, and mankind always remain "in a state of becoming" 
(Plato); nevertheless, "ethnic groups" (Deniker) are realities, despite that an elaboration of second- 
ary anatomical traits has discredited their importance and overlaid them Avith minute criteria which 
have no taxonomic value and Avill ultimately be abandoned. Much has been done toward simplifying 
the network formed by South American languages. Buschmann, Clemens R. Markham, and other 
philologists have resolved pseudostocks into idioms and cut down stems until they are about equal 
with those occupying North America. (Brinton.) These inquiries relate to questions of race, how- 
ever, with which linguistics are not necessarily connected. If physical or mental similarities com- 
bine Tupis and Guaranis, it is undoubtedly true that Arawaks and Caribs, also with many other native 
subdivisions, are equally alike. Indeed, three of the four families in which all Brazilian aborigines 
have been merged, are usually indistinguishable. A Tupi-Guaranian family appears to be only an 
ethnological construction. Perhaps these remarks, though not irrelevant here, more particularly 
belonged to the chapter on Brazil,. but space is limited, and anthropological matter must enter when 
an opportunity offers. 

&Man, Past and Present, Cambridge, 1899, p. 365. 



PAKAGUAY. 45 

their original speech and has led to tribal schemes entirely without 
foundation. Du Graty says, "Tupi is Guarani a little altered. " f/ But 
this relationship implies no organic unity between peoples employing 
them, although tribes using the latter tongue, or that "lingua geral" 
before alluded to, are spoken of as if their interconnection were suffi- 
ciently proven by a language which Cabeza de Vaca regarded as 
"common to all peoples of this province. " & Now its pure-blooded 
Indians have practically disappeared, and Gran Chaco, that offered such 
poor results for colonization as to be yet incompletely explored, mostly 
contains wrecks of those native aggregates who survived foreign or 
domestic war, pestilence, hybridization, tyranny, and the consequences 
entailed by their own unfitness. These aborigines can only reveal 
themselves through records, and fault} 7 as they are from omissions, 
prejudices, and ig-norance, former observations may still throw some 
light upon earlier times, enabling us to see how Paraguayan indigines 
lived, what circumstances surrounded them, the appearance, culture, 
conduct, resemblances prevalent among men who have been much con- 
fused with each other through imperfect classifications. 

Dominguez takes an extreme doctrinnaire view of this population; 
in his ethnological map the word ' ' Guaranis " is printed across all 
eastern Paraguay; moreover, he asserts that the " twenty -one tribes, 
who differed only in their habits or their arms or the nature of the 
country inhabited by them," all belonged to one family. Azara, c 
however, counted more than fifty separate branches of this stock, 
while previous enumerations by Schmidt, De Vaca, Dobritzhoffer and 
others do not correspond. Taking recognized Guaranians, whose 
essential identity in physical traits and general character have been so 
frequently declared, these statements may now be compared with the 
opinions of observers formed at a period when the} 7 as yet retained 
more of their original characteristics. Cabeza de Vaca discriminates 
between Azares and other Indians, because the former were "men of 
great size and gigantic limbs." He also relates that a Gaycuru depu- 
tation, bearing proposals for submission to Spain, met him at Asuncion 
and utterly repudiated the existence of any kinship with Azares, 
Guatatas, Naperus, Mayas, or Guaranis, protesting — in virtue of tribal 
traditions, most probably — that those peoples had always been aliens and 
hereditary foes. On the Paraguay River Ulrich Schmidt d discovered 
"tall and erect" Timbus, Carios, Corondas, with " small, thick-set 
Zchmiaisch and Salnaischos, whose genealogy Dominguez says "can 
not even be guessed at." Not to multiply quotations on this point, 
early explorers found no such uniformity as is said to obtain, either 



a La Republique du Paraguay, Bruxelles, 1865. 

& Voyage to the River La Plata and Paraguay, Hakluyt Soc, London, 1891. 

c Voyages dans l'Amerique Meridionale, Paris, 1809. 

d Conquest of the river Plate, 1535-55. London, 1891. 



46 PAKAGUAY. 

in stature, chest girth, mass of bone, color, muscular development., 
bodily vigor, or cranial conformation. It should be mentioned, like- 
wise, that while Schmidt, De Vaca, Pena, Hernando de Eibera, 
Dobritzhoffer, and, in our own day, Lozano a pointed out structural 
peculiarities which attracted attention, none of these doubted that a 
single stock occupied the entire province. 

Equally well marked contrasts of other orders are nevertheless 
recorded — discrepant social status, for example, and divergencies in 
those mental or moral qualities constituting what is called family char- 
acter — a diagnostic indication valuable on account of its well-known 
persistence and because these undeviating attributes are perpetuated 
through heredity. Looking at Guarani "nations," as Schmidt calls 
them, from a psychical or sociological point of view, we find no impor- 
tant resemblances among them other than may be ascribed to their 
common savagery. The relations of tribes to foreigners, for instance, 
were extremely unlike, and men who violated formal contracts from 
caprice, or broke them under passing impulses of resentment or avarice, 
certainly possessed dissimilar moral natures. If an occupancy of like 
culture planes evinces coordinate intellectual development, still mind 
in its emotional aspect — temperament, disposition, feeling — must have 
been different, since in no way can constancy and vacillation, honesty 
and fraud, a sense of obligation and utter irresponsibility, be attributed 
to the same aggregates as generic traits. Guaycurus kept faith 
inviolably; Carios massacred De Avilas's forces while acting as allies; 
Xarayes sank into slavery without resistance; Mepanes, Abipons, 
Mocovis, with others, never submitted until war, alcohol, and pesti- 
lence put an end to their struggle for independence through proxi- 
mate extinction. A mere glance at facts shows how Charlevoix b 
and many earlier annalists misinterpreted native characteristics when 
they merged Paraguayan aborigines into one mass of treacherous, 
sensual, cowardly, and equally degraded beings. Again, some so- 
called Guaranians lived in palisaded and moated towns like those 
Carios built, where existence implied the organization of cooperative 
action, however crudely systematized, as well as an acceptance of 
restrictions imposed upon individual freedom by communal govern- 
ment in whatever phase this may have been established. Contrariwise, 
each Orefone or Xaraye household lived separately, its members not 
only rejecting any common authority, but also revolting against 
patriarchal rule; and where peoples similarly situated live, so to 
speak, side by side during ages, with the result of developing such 
incongruities as these, there is no use in maintaining their inherent 
identity in caliber or fitness. 

Purely ethnographic distinctions between these tribes require con- 

a Historia de la Conquista del Paraguay, Buenos Aires, 1873. 
b Histoire du Paraguay, Paris, 1761. 



PARAGUAY. 47 

sideration because it is customary to note such matters, and not that 
they have any anthropological importance except in so far as inven- 
tions, manufactures, and primitive arts, or manners, customs, and 
ceremonial observances may betoken positive states of intellectual 
development — witness to the progress toward adjustment with sur- 
roundings. Notoriously the same needs have generally originated like 
modes for meeting constant economic requirements, and supplying what 
universal feelings demand. Specifically identical arms, utensils, tools, 
garments, and personal decorations originated all over the world; so 
that inferences respecting race or family can not be rightly drawn 
from details in mechanical construction, utilitarian devices, dress, 
adornments, mythical conceptions, or ritualistic forms. Taking old 
chroniclers' statements as they connect themselves with what has been 
said concerning legitimate and spurious ethnical data, it appears pos- 
sible to derive certain ideas not expressed in the text from what was 
said of that tribal congeries occupying Paraguay when the Spanish 
invasion occurred. Then and at all times, communities lived apart; 
were not grouped in any locality accordingly as they possessed mili- 
tary power, stores of food, those material appliances and the inter- 
nal organization which indicate progress or its absence. Dominant 
pueblos, with an environment of tributary towns, seem to have left no 
indication that such centers ever existed, there is not a trace of any 
permanent Guarani league or confederacy. These peoples occasionally 
combined to carry out some purpose, however, as the attack upon 
Buenos Aires, for instance, when, says Schmidt, "twenty-three thou- 
sand " Quirandis, Charuas, and Timbus assembled. In all likelihood 
this is no more true than that he himself once encountered 15,000 
Timbu warriors. Such forces, even supposing their numbers to have 
been possible, were wholly incapable of remaining united except for 
the briefest period. Despotic power, religious zeal, intense and gen- 
eral patriotism have sometimes kept undisciplined, ill-provided masses 
together, but nothing else has ever done so, and these were wanting 
here. Geographical features presided over a distribution of popula- 
tion. Alluvial lands skirting streams belonging to the Parana-Paraguay 
riverine system were inhabited most thickty . Circumstances forced 
nearly all tribes into some kind of cultivation, and those rich bottoms 
would evidently make large returns for very little labor; therefore 
these fluvial tracts, or the rising ground above them which was rarely 
overflowed, contained all sorts of communities — hunters or fisher- 
men, agriculturists, and Indians entirely dependent upon spontaneous 
productions, sedentary societies, with nomadic bands— while native 
groups, variously denominated, more sparsely peopled the northeastern 
sierras, and small hordes of nameless savages wandered through pri- 
meval forests, lived on shore lines, or occupied malarious lacustrine 
basins. 



48 PARAGUAY. 

Such dissimilarities in situation and social state were accompanied 
by a variety of minor peculiarities, which, as they haye been much 
dwelt upon, may be rapidly reviewed. If the accounts explorers gave 
were at all consistent, if these writers did not perpetually contradict 
themselves and disprove their own assertions, a priori reasoning would 
at once dispose of the question whether Paragua}^ was inhabited by 
kindred peoples. As this matter stands, however, priest and soldier 
alike insist that affiliated tribesmen made up its population, though 
in so far as arts, customs, fashions, or manifestations of disposition 
g-o no aggregates were ever more unlike. Even confining all evidence 
-cited to communities catalogued among direct offshoots from the above- 
mentioned stock, we find only records of difference. What old annal- 
ists say about costume, for illustration, might well suggest an opinion 
to the effect that there were no tribal dresses and everyone wore what 
he pleased. An explanation of this indiscriminate array is found 
in the market places scattered all over Paraguay's most populous dis- 
tricts. Arms, feather work, dyestuffs, furs, utensils — indeed, every- 
thing these indigenes possessed, including their women — were bar- 
tered at those commercial centers, and most articles of use or ornament 
thus became generally diffused. On the other hand, certain fashions 
claimed many followers. Numerous tribes — Timbus, Guaycurus, Qui- 
randis, Carondas, etc. — wore cotton, woolen, or cardas-fiber kilts: 
Xarayes scantily covered themselves with parrot- feather capes and 
bead aprons; Abipons or their Mepene relatives exhibited the utmost 
decency in attire; Carios, like several groups otherwise well provided^ 
usually went stark naked. Skin embellishments also varied greatly. 
Antonio Correa describes Xara} r es "painting themselves for ceremo- 
nies," but tattooing was the common form which this kind of 
decoration assumed, and these markings, although probably identical 
among special subdivisions, differed with each community. They do 
not appear to have possessed anj T totemic significance, although 
Guarani Indians here, and the same so-called family in Brazil, without 
doubt imagined magic animals as progenitors; nevertheless such forms 
were not blazoned on them. A colored splotch on the face or breast, 
straight lines variously combined, without pictographic or emblematic 
significance, comprehend all Paraguayan tattoos. Scarifications ap- 
pear to have been less popular, but labrets were almost universal, 
while Von Martins (substituting an ethnographic fact for a conclusion 
in anthropology) discriminated ethnically between Lenguas and sur- 
rounding aborigines on the basis of these lip ornaments alone. 

It seems scarcely necessary to examine data from which deductions 
upon race questions can not be made. There are other observations 
recorded, however, that can by no means be considered irrelevant. 
Height, bulk, endurance, etc. , have been mentioned as strikingly con- 
trasted among tribal aggregates here, and additional ethnic traits — • 



PAEAGUAY. 49 

appearing only through inheritance and dependent on physiological 
processes for change — likewise mark off indigenous groups from one 
another. Dobritzhoffer's sweeping assertion that Guarani Indians, or, 
in other words, all natives of this province, "approach a Mongolic 
type, ''being short, thick-set, broad-shouldered men, having round faces, 
"slightly oblique eyes," and "a yellow-brown skin," a is not only at 
variance with the general testimony of observers, but has been flatly 
contradicted by his own descriptions of tall, slender "European-look- 
ing" communities, whose complexions matched those of Spaniards 
or Portuguese. Physical characters and their mental correlates can 
not be set aside because they are incapable of expression in terms com- 
mending themselves to common acceptance, and usually degenerate 
into disputes about words. Admitting that humanity had a single 
Indo-Malaysian source, still great groups were formed during disper- 
sion whose unlikeness of mind or body do not rest upon descriptive 
technicalities. The word "race" generalizes persistent dissimilari- 
ties and resemblances among men. Throughout America certain 
masses so united or separated are now regarded as coming from 
diverse stocks and opposite quarters of the world. Although ethnolo- 
gists have not agreed upon those "least variable differences" which 
characterize "large divisions of mankind; " & yet structural features 
which will only change under influences altering the entire man, such 
as special cranial types, may be accounted valid differentials between 
aggregates. "Though a skull per se is of very little importance," c 
and its anatomical analysis, so to speak, has no discoverable bearing 
upon racial affinities, distinctly contrasted heads, when common to 
masses of men, possess an undoubted classificatory significance. No 
advantages accrue through size or shape. These simply represent traits 
descending in one line by inheritance. Natural selection affects noth- 
ing disconnected from fitness; head contours merely reproduce like 
ancestral peculiarities while the blood remains unmixed. d Seeing, then, 
that according to the best and latest authority^ Guarani are dolichoce- 
phalous, while Charruas have short skulls, grouping them together, as 
Dominguez and others do, actually stultifies anthropo-biology. 

Considerable stress has been laid upon descriptions given \>x early 
explorers in the old " Gobernacion de la Plata," because what they had 

o Description of the Abipones. London, 1745. Vol. 1, p. 306. 

b Brinton, Races and Peoples. New York, 1890. 

c Virchow, Anthropology during the Past Twenty Years. Berlin, 1890. 

<*" Certain characteristics which constitute the principal differences of races do not readily pass into 
others" (Spix & Martins, Travel in Brazil, 1817). Cranial conformation is, however, "no distinctive 
mark of race in the individual, only in the mass " (Brinton, Races and Peoples, 1890). Craniology is 
not confined to human beings (Owen, History of Vertebrates, 1866), and heads change with altered 
circumstances of life both in men and brutes, but not until the organization has been profoundly 
modified. It is this invariability that gives its taxonomic value to type, but to the typical form 
alone, as index classifications hopelessly confound divisions of mankind (De Quatrefages, L'Espece 
Humaine) . No instance of an alteration in skull character has been known to occur without crossing- 

e Keane, Ethnology. Cambridge, 1896. 

85A— 02 4 



50 PAKAGUAY. 

an opportunity of seeing soon disappeared. Whole tribes vanished, 
or their dismembered fragments lost the original collective designa- 
tion, as Azara explains, by making additions which finally supplanted 
it. It would appear, however, that real extinction took place on a 
large scale. In 1749 Dobritzhoffer reports Chalchaquis, Malbalaes, 
Matares, Mogosnas, Orejones, Aquilotes, Palomos, Churumates, 
Ojotades, Tanos, and Quamalcas as being wholly extirpated or rapidly 
approaching dissolution. We also learn from contemporary or pre- 
ceding travelers that those great forests between the Parana and Uru- 
guay, with river basins in various parts of Paraguay, were peopled 
with nameless savages concerning whom almost nothing- is preserved. 
Father Martin a of course included them among Guaranian groups; 
yet while insisting on that " docile * * * mild * * '* loyal" 
nature characteristic of a family eminently disposed to become " good 
Christians," he describes hordes wandering along the Monday-guazu 
and Acaray, as being "constantly intent upon a chase of men, whose 
flesh they infinitely prefer to that of any beast." 6 Similarly with 
better known branches from this same stem, Paj^aguas were u atro- 
cious pirates;" Guaycurus and Mbayas, "Indians of the savagest 
kind," who perpetually "laid waste the lands of Paraguay;" Yaros, 
Bohanes, Costeros, and Minoanes, "most barbarous heathens, * * * 
not to be converted." It might seem from the foregoing that there 
was no more likelihood of our gaining an}^ better knowledge from 
books of these communities at large than there is that we may come 
to know about Ten Kate's and La Hitte's mysterious Callus or the 
pygmies of Gran Chaco mentioned by Andres Lamas and Juan Techos. 
This is not altogether the case, however. Chronicles contain valuable 
information whose incompleteness in many respects, or its inaccura- 
cies, can now be supplemented and corrected. Therefore, without 
reference to tribal classification, much that is important as displaying 
social phases prevalent among these indigenes may be extracted from 
the writings of those who saw them while they were yet comparatively 
unchanged. 

Between 1600 and 1650 Spanish domination was established in the 
Paraguay of that period, and exterminations, such as for several 
reasons attended their presence, had not proceeded to any extent. At 
this time the country supported a large population in consequence of 
being more or less cultivated by most of its inhabitants. Nevertheless 
there is nothing to show that agriculture was developed beyond the 
simplest modes of tillage, and contemporary records depict socio- 
logical conditions under which large local aggregations were mani- 
festly impossible. Those 12,000 Carondas, "all fit for war," whom 
Schmidt met while marching on Asuncion, represented 60,000 indi- 

« Description of the Abipones, vol. 1, p. 128. blbid. 



PARAGUAY. 51 

viduals belonging to this single tribe, an estimate altogether incredible 
and at variance with everything known concerning the densities of 
American populations anywhere or their means for self-support 
when concentrated. On this continent stored food, which is pre- 
requisite for an assemblage in mass, implies a town. Many such 
places are referred to by chroniclers, but they never receive much 
notice, and were most probably insignificant constructions, resembling 
Iroquoian villages — communal dwellings, built within more or less 
effective defensive works. There was no extension of the pueblo sys- 
tem here; no leagues, nor any grouping indicative of mutual relations. 
Notwithstanding it has been held that the New World had no past 
except as represented by towns, this is not a fact with regard to South 
American countries east of the Andes, and Paraguay among others. 
These settlements left very few archaeological remains. If they were 
to any degree foci of developmental activities, the changes did not go 
far enough to assume recognizable forms. We do not know what 
modifications, if any, sedentary life introduced into the organization 
of nomadic or seminomadic communities, and beyond adverting to 
their existence, or events which transpired there, annalists say 
nothing that reveals the internal state of definitely settled village 
societies. It is significant in this connection that when transportation 
by water was not practicable and considerable distances separated 
places where supplies could be obtained, the invaders, who seem to 
have been entirely incapable of providing for themselves, always 
suffered severely from privation. This fact, so often recorded, not 
only indicates the common proximity of towns, which enabled land 
journeys to be made despite accompanying hardships, but demon- 
strates how small and ill provisioned such settlements must have been. 
Expeditionary forces could always get Indian carriers, and if stores 
had existed, Spanish soldiers were not the men to march with empty 
stomachs. Moreover, garnered grain is wealth among primitive peo- 
ples, as Payne remarks \ a and its extent of accumulation anywhere 
measures the development which labor arrived at, shows how far 
those arts connected with agriculture progressed, and forms a standard 
for determining general sociological conditions. That these never 
approached the barbaric stage, however, appears to be settled by 
every kind of evidence bearing upon this subject (already referred to 
under somewhat different relations). An explanation of that status 
in progress which succeeded its first movements, viz, permanent 
settlement, regular tillage, intertribal commerce, and rudimentary 
attempts at bettering their artificial surroundings, may be found in 
the isolation of pueblos either cut off from each other by barren 
tracts or hostile neighbors, an entire absence of common interests, 
together with that constant flux or reflux accompanying internecine 

a History of the New World, called America. Oxford, 1899. 



52 PARAGUAY. 

wars or predatory expeditions, which, by all accounts, went on continu- 
ously and to a large extent occasioned those disruptions, redistributions, 
and disappearances too frequently occurring for any establishment of 
more advanced evolutionary stages. Forays, both by land and water, 
took place upon a scale that has not met with adequate recognition consid- 
ering the destructive results they involved — their inhibitory influence 
as regards progress of all kinds. Abipon raids, for example, occa- 
sioned incalculable damage over an area so wide that its extent bore no 
proportion to the forces operating. Dobritzhoffer says these nomads 
never could muster a thousand warriors, yet, before being conquered 
by Mocobis, these Indians went far toward checking everything 
attempted in southern Paraguay, whether natives or foreigners were 
the projectors. Like tribes, if not so formidable, harried land tracts 
and swept innumerable waterways with piratical flotillas which drove 
away less warlike peoples from fertile river banks where fisheries 
yielded an inexhaustible food suppty and difficulties of cultivation 
sank to a minimum. The Archivo General de Indias fully prove how 
seriously this cause alone affected internal prosperity and well-being 
and show an incalculable damage by means of tribes in utter savagery 
aggressing against communities who produced something. More than 
two centuries after Spanish observers described naked, destitute, iil- 
armed Lenguas as mainly occupied with destruction and spoil, Captain 
Page saw those wholly unimproved marauders levying tribute at will 
upon native reservations that had been settled and Christianized for 
generations. Long before this noncultivating Azares, whom Schmidt 
calls ' ' the best warriors that can be found, though not so good at lighting 
on land," a had driven most sedentary inhabitants away from those 
streams they infested. So also with Carios, Guaxarapos, Payaguas, 
etc. — simply destroy ers who paralyzed or ruined the best part of Para- 
guay. It is an anomalous circumstance that military men persistently 
wrote about Indian armies and widespread conquests made by native 
forces, while their own designs were constantly thwarted because even 
small bodies of disciplined troops could not be kept together in this 
country. They did so, however, and questions of equipment and supply 
never seem to have suggested themselves. Nevertheless the tradition of 
Tupi-Guaranian, or Guarani campaigns, has come down from prehis- 
toric times and is still credited. No one knows how it originated, but 
those facts which probably explain its continued existence are in sight. 
The extension of a single language over an immense area was taken 
for proof that those who spoke it were related; furthermore, that 
these tribes diffused themselves by force of arms, and therefore had 
an unquestionably " superior military organization. " 6 No facts what- 

a Conquest of the River Plate, 1535-1555. 

b Payne, History of the New World. Oxford, 1899. 



PARAGUAY. • 53 

ever can be brought forward in favor of this latter assumption. Since 
pakeolithic man arrived in South America its inhabitants have inces- 
santly wandered and crossed, until autochthonous peoples or trophic 
centers now scarcely require serious mention; while so far as the 
alleged family relationship is concerned, no such physically connected 
group can be found. War parties desolated Paraguay, and did it 
effectually. There is not a trace of anything more formidable. 

Those feelings of abhorrence excited by cannibalism have given it 
an undue prominence among signs indicating the general social state. 
Most testimony with regard to its prevalence here consists of blank 
affirmations or denials made by men disqualified as witnesses from 
their ignorance respecting the subject upon which they pronounced. 
These writers commonly look upon human instincts and acts in an 
inverted order, judge savage conduct b} 7 civilized standards, besides 
putting inference in place of observation. There is little doubt that 
man eating was customary with all races at some period. True sav- 
agery is a state wherein objections to human flesh on its own account 
have no place. But well-marked degrees of anthropophagy are known 
as accompanying different developmental phases. The interval between 
indiscriminate cannibalism and this practice, when it has become an 
accessory of sacrificial rites, shows that ages passed while this distinc- 
tion was shaping itself under successive evolutionary conditions. Set- 
tled rituals and systematic beliefs associate themselves with anthro- 
pophagous observances which have assumed a religious character. 
They alwa} T s belong to barbaric societies who have long left primitive 
cults behind, and in that symbolical form Tylor calls " god- eating, " a 
are scattered among people so situated over nearly the whole world. 

It is altogether improbable that men were formerly sacrificed in 
Paraguay or devoured ceremonially. Human beings were, however, 
eaten for other purposes than to satisfy hunger- — brave enemies (as 
Schmidt records of the Cairos) because their courage and powers might 
be acquired by this means; near relatives who had died, in order that 
death might not cause a final separation. Those cannibalistic forest 
nomads Dobritzhoffer speaks of, no doubt ate men as they would any 
other animals; but pueblo people and cultivators can not have been 
reduced to the same straits except during famine, nor can De Vaca's 
unqualified accusation against Guarani tribes at large in respect of like 
practices be accepted. Manyama and Bangala man eating, such as 
Hinde & or Bidwell c saw on the Congo, is not certainly known to have 
prevailed among sedentary communities inhabiting this country, 
although many native peoples were undoubtedly anthropophagists to 
some extent. 

a Primitive Culture. London, 1879. 

b Fall of the Congo Arabs. London, 1897. 

c Fivr, Years Among the Congo Cannibals. New York, 1890. 



54 PARAGUAY. 

Whenever they were not fighting, these Indians traded industriously, 
frequenting market places and bartering eveiything that could be 
exchanged. A general distribution of commodities occurred through- 
out East Paraguay, whose inhabitants, although they lacked ability to 
profit much from those associations their commercial activity brought 
about, necessarily gained something — incentives toward industry, 
improved arts, more quickness of mind, and greater culture than 
would have been possible in complete isolation. At the same time, 
outward circumstances, combined with mental inaptness, forbade 
advance, confining all forms of progress to rudimentary states. So 
far as fitness of mind or bod}^ are connected with those qualities 
which entail success and failure, the patterns of their aprons, feather 
combinations, nose or ear rings, tattoos, fashions in arms and uten- 
sils, mean nothing. As illustrating forethought, an ability to attain 
ends by artificial means, a sense of beauty, inventive faculty, or choice 
among materials, all Paraguayan tribes occupy much the same plane. 
That they never got beyond employing wood or stone when iron 
and copper were available, at least to some extent; furthermore, 
that those groups in whose territories these existed made no use of 
them, is a profoundly significant fact if we consider how an inter- 
mingling through traffic so long continued and widely extended as to 
form a language, must have modified local peculiarities of every kind, 
produced some mental plasticity, and relaxed the well-known rigidity 
of custom in savagery. Faculty, not skill, was at fault here — the man, 
and not his environment. Spaniards absorbed in their search for gold 
and jewels did not look toward any other end than immediate enrich- 
ment. In 1749 Father Martin declared Paraguay to be without any 
precious stones or ores. By this time, however, natives had learned 
by bitter experience what iron could do. Silver and other metals 
coming from the West through Bolivia and found among these tribes 
when their conquerors came, might have enlightened them concerning 
the country's resources; but while it is altogether improbable that 
those remained entirely unknown, they could not have been appreci- 
ated. Comprehension, insight, inventiveness, even imitative ability, 
were lacking. 

Scarcely anything be}^ond affirmations of their former existence is 
to be found in early Spanish writings which refer to those forest groups, 
or "hordes," as Dobritzhoffer calls them, who once hid themselves in 
immense woodland tracts. Jungle life everywhere is miserable, often 
bordering upon the lowest modes of existence that men endure, and 
has received sufficient attention when Tapuyos, Akroa, Capayos, or 
other Brazilian indigenes equally degraded with these nomacj fishermen 
of Paraguay were reviewed/' Arms commonly display the most deft 
and efficient mechanism primitive handicraftsmen can attain to, and 

a United States of Brazil, Washington, 1901, Chap. III. 



PARAGUAY. 55 

there are notices of tribes here who only partially reached a stone age. 
Cabeza de Vaca describes some Gruaranis as using two-handed wooden 
swords, unedged with any harder substance. Yopiru or Mbaya maces 
or war clubs — the former being missile weapons — have been frequently 
mentioned, besides reed knives, pointless arrows, and lances without 
heads. In a majority of instances, however, such hand arms or pro- 
jectiles had shafts capped with flint, shell, or bone. Constructive 
details natural!}* varied somewhat. There were various methods for 
barbing, feathering, putting on points, shaping bows, etc., but no 
Indians of these communities could " send an arrow through a knight 
and his horse," as Cieza de Leon, whose "testimony," says Prescott, 
"is always good," records that Panama warriors did. Mocobies, 
Eenguas, Abipons killed jaguars, shooting at short distances and often 
meeting with casualties themselves; yet, speaking generally, none of 
those tribes in question carried archery far toward perfection. If their 
weapons possessed sufficient strength, skill failed; range and precision 
did not go together. So far as accuracy is concerned, Father Martin 
states that marksmen in the Mbaevera forest " shot small birds flying," 
but mastery of the bow requires more mind than these aborigines could 
bring to bear. Axes that would cut wood or hew off a wounded ene- 
ury's feet were made from any kind of rock which might be brought 
to an edge hj fracture along its cleavage planes and did not need grind- 
ing. Pestles, mortars, sinkers, scrapers, etc., were also stone imple- 
ments, while those intended for cutting or piercing show that shell 
and bone frequently furnished materials to Paraguayans, who, as a rule, 
had poor clay and did not manufacture good pottery, very commonly 
using gourds in place of earthen vessels. They knew nothing about 
the beauty residing in form; proportion, composition, suggestiveness, 
did not enter into their conceptions of artistic representation or orna- 
ment. Whatever was gaudy pleased and impressed them. Therefore, 
the forests abundantly producing brilliant dyes and splendidly plum- 
aged birds, many gala dresses shone with vivid hues, and all but a few 
anomalous savages, seemingly without any desire for displa} r , deco- 
rated themselves or their garments so far as skin painting, tattoos, col- 
ored clothes, trinkets, and feathers permitted. Facial deformation by 
labrats was, perhaps, the most prevalent mode of illustrating that no true 
aesthetic feeling had developed itself among these tribes at large, and 
yet explorers notice Payagua arabesques, earthenware statuettes, and 
wood carvings which give proof of considerable advance in this direc- 
tion, being copies from nature — not merely symbolical representations. 
Schmidt describes those people as nearlj* naked, noncultivating fisher- 
men, Guaranis by descent, according to Dobritzhoffer's classification 
and Dominguez's modern ethnological map, but really unplaced racially. 
Etchings by European cave dwellers show how little economic situation 
has to do with artistic abilit}*, while certain vases taken from Sam- 
baquis in northern Brazil and western Argentina manifest its existence 



56 PARAGUAY. 

as an endowment of a few among the numerous South American sub- 
groups. At all events, there is enough to make it plain that nascent 
faculty was blighted by causes which prevented general evolution. 
Pa}^aguas are now extinct, but evidently they possessed powers and 
mental habitudes such as did not find an expression through ordinary 
ornamental arts, or the combination of manipulative dexterity with 
empirical science which enabled certain so-called Guarani Indians to 
achieve their most perfect mechanical works, namely, canoes fit for 
coasting voyages, while carrying forty or fifty men. Craft constructed 
as these must needs have been, evince a union of intellect, orderly, well- 
arranged experience, and manual facility, surpassing anything else they 
accomplished. Those " copper rods," worn in place of wooden, flint, 
or shell lip disks, can not be accounted for. Schmidt says he saw them. 
It is known that neither Pa} r aguas nor any other indigenes here worked 
metals, while a whole clan scarcely got them, either directly or indi- 
rectly, from an Andean source, and succeeded in monopolizing those 
articles themselves. Like Father Martin's metallic plates, discovered 
in the Banda Oriental, these articles are unexplainable. 

There was no property in severalt} T , no individualism or citizenship, 
throughout Paraguay; its societies rested on tribal organization and 
territorial possessions, while such ideas, feelings, customs, and religious 
beliefs as necessarily grow out of land ownership by separate men 
did not exist there. Communal systems, however, though g-ener- 
ically alike, differ in degree of development, and their specific fea- 
tures also vary. The most marked social contrast displayed here was 
that between distinctly nomadic and permanently settled aggregates. 
Agriculturists living in communal houses and wanderers looking- 
for food wherever spontaneous supplies presented themselves might 
belong to one t} T pe, but they could not otherwise be the same men. 
Unfortunately we have very little special knowledge concerning these 
Indians. Everything that can vitiate records acted upon chroniclers 
who once saw what change and death now conceal, and scientific infer- 
ence, or those analogies universal history enables us to apply, will not 
go far toward the rehabilitation of a past which bequeathed scarcely 
anything to posterity. 

Obviously relations subsisting between modes of life and character 
are reciprocal. One gathers from the cursoiy and imperfect accounts 
given by earlier explorers that there were fishing villages on Para- 
guayan streams whose inhabitants did not cultivate. Very commonly, 
however, townspeople depended to a large extent upon their crops, 
and therefore, besides regulations for clearing, planting, reaping, stor- 
ing, and distributing grain, tillage cults, howsoever rude they may have 
been, assuredly arose. In some form, earth spirits, genii of the sea- 
sons, divinities presiding over quickening seeds and coming harvests, 
ruled in that unseen but intensely realized world which primitive 
fancies are always so much occupied with, and undeveloped human 



PARAGUAY. 57 

beings everywhere imagine as enveloping "this visible diurnal sphere." 
Pueblo life there, even in its simpler phases, diverged widel}< from a 
roaming existence passed under mat shelter tents whose position was 
constantly changed. Nomads had their own myths and impersonations 
of supernatural powers, for savages are far more religious than civi- 
lized men ; nevertheless, these latter originated under other circum- 
stances and exercised unlike influences, in no way operating toward 
aggregation, or that consolidation of interests which is the primary 
condition for improvement. 

Apart from both those classes above referred to, there is a group 
here equally anomalous socially with Payaguas, as viewed from an 
artistic standpoint. Cabeza de Vaca's statement that the Guaxarapos 
recognized no chiefs, is ambiguous and admits of more than one inter- 
pretation; but this is not the case with his remarks upon Juarus. 
These were permanently settled cultivators, yet apparently without 
any tribal organization or communal system; seemingly they had 
neither gens units nor the whole supposititiously consanguine mass 
of tribesmen as formal elements in their social composition. Like 
Araucanians, those natives lived separately, each household being 
entirely independent and exercising all governmental functions what- 
soever. An absence of information stops inquiry at this exceptionable 
fact. Juarus have passed awa}^, but whether comparatively rapid 
extinction was due to a lack of such personal qualities as kept up the 
protracted Araucan defense against foreign domination, or if with 
less courage, enterprise, constancy, and love for liberty, they succumbed 
to greater strains, can not now be determined. 

Considerable differences in many respects must have been visible 
between people occupying open, straggling villages, whose dwellings 
consisted of sheds, grass huts, or wattle-and-daub houses that would 
accommodate several families, when such places were compared with 
compact, fortified towns, whose populations lived in close contact and 
on a higher plane. Neither priest nor soldier could see anything of 
this, however. Both mistook every settlement for a feudal burg, 
misapprehending the meaning, and giving wrong names to, what- 
ever they beheld. True pueblos, nevertheless, convey positive impli- 
cations. They imply an indubitable progress toward sociological 
results, which, though not attained, were closer at hand in these places 
than was the case anywhere else. Wherever throughout both Amer- 
icas the pueblo stood it was more or less perfectly organized as a mil- 
itary democracy. Robertson a inferred this from historical analogies, 
while Morgan* and Bandelier 6 ' demonstrated his conclusion. Speaking 

"History of the Discovery and Settlement of America. 

b" Homes and household life of the Indians," contributions to North American Ethnology, No. IX- 

c " Distribution and tenure of lands among the ancient Mexicans," Ann. Rep. of Peabody Museum,. 

Cambridge, 1878; also "The social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans,'" 

ibid., 1880. 



58 PAKAGUAY. 

comparatively, settlements belonging to that class give an assurance 
of civilizing agencies already established. Municipalities, even while 
embryonic, only endured because those chaotic associations proper to 
hordes had passed through the more defined and complex phases of 
elementary tribal society and approached a state wherein irresponsi- 
ble individual action was partially subordinated to rule by customs; 
that is, laws in process of formation, regulations antedating formal 
enactments, and which represented "the judgments on particular 
cases " a given in councils whose members occupied their positions 
during popular approval. Moreover, town life signified that disag- 
gregative tendencies were being checked through a vaguely recognized 
superiority of the whole body politic; further by cooperative action 
developing as social solidarity increased; likewise from spontaneously 
evolved systematizations of labor following upon an artificial basis 
for subsistence. It may be safely assumed that these germs of prog- 
ress were at work in Paraguayan pueblos, but beyond this point dark- 
ness falls upon their history, and yet those sociological features 
indicated again suffice to show how dissimilar peoples living here 
must have been — how distinctly facts contradict theoretical uniform- 
ities in the race or races inhabiting this country. 

Few statements about the religious ideas of these tribes can be made 
with any certainty. Even such as were most advanced could not have 
arrived at smy conception of natural causation. All obscure phenomena 
were referred to preternatural agencies. No crop was planted with- 
out attempts at controlling spirits of earth and air through charms 
and incantations. Animism — a belief in an unseen presence associated 
with everything belonging to the outward world — begot its progeny of 
omens, oblations, penance, sacrifice, and, like it has done everywhere 
throughout human annals, originated rites, not artificially constructed, 
as Banier, Voss, and Creutzer imagined, but born from those pertur- 
bations experienced by mankind when confronted by the mysteries 
of life or death. There is, however, nothing which shows that fetish 
men and witch doctors approximated toward becoming priests, that any 
ecclesiastical order even remotely resembling servitors dedicated to 
greater gods, such as those of Mexico, Central America, or Peru, existed. 
Paragua}^\s crude, disconnected superstitions lay- apart in a domain 
where incipient generalization and abstraction were incapable of form- 
ing doctrines or religious ideals. So far as nature worship is neces- 
sarily connected with agriculture among all primitive communities, 
these tribes no doubt practiced some cults of this class, }^et Father 
Martin assures us that they had no good deities — an opinion undoubt- 
edly colored by professional feeling. He knew the sun was quite 
generally regarded as a source of benign influences in La Plata, that 

aDwight, introduction to Sir Henry Maine's History of Ancient Law, p. XV. 



PAKAGUAY. 59 

Tobas and other natives slept with feet placed toward the east in order 
to be kept from straying into devious ways. Protective agencies nat- 
urally coexist with maleficent powers, though these may be fewer and 
less efficient; but as may be gathered from what has been said upon 
the general situation, life's more salient events were calculated to 
excite dismay and sorrow rather than gratitude or hope. It had 
always been so. No g-ods of mercy were conceivable by them, and 
when Dobritzhoffer said that those Indians only credited malignant 
spirits, this might well be true, for then the worst had come — foreign 
invasion — and there was no expectation of deliverance. 

That abundance both in natural and cultivated foods which distin- 
guished Paraguay enabled its natives to sustain injuries inflicted 
during all prehistoric times by internecine hostilities, and live longer 
under Spanish rule than would have been otherwise possible. As 
chronicles unanimously agree, there was enough to eat everywhere. 
Innumerable inroads into a fertile country filled with game and open 
upon all sides must have occurred, and apparently these unknown 
invaders provided for their wants as easily as Sococies or Chaneses, 
whose coming is recorded. We can only say of nomadic peoples 
that they lived perforce in comparatively small bands, managing to 
support themselves wherever they wandered, though doubtless suffer- 
ing equally from scarcity brought on by improvidence and destitu- 
tion occasioned through lack of supplies. Agricultural communities, 
according to the annalists, were exceptionally well placed. Machque- 
rendas furnish a solitary instance where cultivators ' c had nothing to 
eat;" but these indigenes are mentioned as recent intruders upon Abi- 
pon and Azara hunting grounds, who, between constant fighting, 
incomplete settlement, or numerous causes which might have oper- 
ated toward the same end, possessed little stored provision for this 
is what Schmidt evidently means. Speaking of Carios, who were 
slaughtered despite their friendly overtures, he says: "The country 
and people pleased us, as did the food also." De Vaca's men overate 
themselves and got ill in Guarani villages. Antonio Correa found 
"plenty of maize, by the grace of God," among Xaraj^e pueblos, 
and if Quirandis, Charcos, Guaragos, Orejones, etc., did not plant 
regularly they procured enough seeds, roots, tubers, besides animal 
matter, to maintain a quasi-sedentary existence. Hunger played no 
important part in depopulating the Banda Oriental until its tribes 
had been scattered or enslaved, and not then as actual famine, but 
rather through lessening increase, depreciating plrysical and mental 
energy, augmenting a liability to serious results from shock or dis- 
ease. Whether an} r South American aggregates so far overcame the 
weaknesses residing in an unstable social equilibrium as to be capable 
of reconstituting themselves under favorable circumstances after dis- 
memberment is unknowable. History makes it plain that those most 



60 PARAGUAY. 

highly evolved did not do so. Opportunity proved adverse, and they 
evinced no powers which could change the course of events. Dis- 
placement without captivity ruined less developed masses, who never 
recovered their former status, but uniformly degenerated like the 
fugitives inhabiting Chaco, in many instances villagers and agricul- 
turists whom new surroundings converted into nomadic hunters or 
fishermen. 

As slaves these indigenes died out. Violence, disease, exhaustion, 
self-abandonment, says Dobritzhoffer, "filled all lands of the Guaranis 
with their graves." Those factors, occasioning so great a mortality 
among conquered peoples in tropical or subtropical America, have 
already been referred to at some length while describing the native 
races of Brazil, Chile, and Argentina; therefore it only needs mention 
that these implastic beings broke down under coercion — could not 
become accommodated to those multiform privations and restrictions 
slavery implies. Furthermore, that conspicuously active among other 
fatal influences at work on this continent, and here operating upon an 
unprecedented scale, was despair. Naturally insensible to physical 
pain, as natives of the New World undoubtedly are, it is otherwise with 
mental distress. Indians brood over their sorrows until they perish 
from an emotional paralysis of vital function, made possible by nutri 
tive failure. Observers belonging to different nations and ages have 
watched this wasting away without grasping its full meaning — mission- 
aries at "Guarani Reductions," together with laymen like Sebastian 
Lorente in Peru, Bates on the Upper Amazons, Im Thum among 
aborigines of Guiana. It is absurd to blame men for doing harm 
unconsciously, but a propaganda was instituted here that demands 
some attention. The question whether savages are ever transformed 
into properly so-called Christian men may be put aside as not directly 
connected with this inquiry; what does concern it, however, is the 
system itself; that disciplinary organization set in action, and its 
issues. So soon as an interest excited by novelty wore off, enforced 
routine — regular labor, unvarying devotional exercises, constant super- 
vision, perpetual interference with impulses, which undeveloped human 
nature continually experiences — became intolerable and destructive; 
yet their "relations" show how priests at mission stations believed 
that revolts against this state of affairs must have been specially insti- 
gated through infernal emissaries, and also display a mournful sur- 
prise over the loss of life among people whom these good ecclesiastics 
honestly attempted to protect and improve. 

Under such circumstances comparatively few missionary settlements 
attained any long- continued existence. Father Martin reports that 
73 were abandoned in Chaco alone before the eighteenth century was 
half over, while those which persisted among the "Guarani Reduc- 
tions" of eastern Paraguay held their inmates by force, until such as 



PARAGUAY. 61 

were left after generations had passed became accustomed to their sit- 
uation. J. P. and W. P. Robertson's criticisms on such establishments 
are evidently prompted by sectarian prejudice/' Not " imbecility" or 
a "servile'' spirit kept these Indians in subjection. All who could 
escape did so; but in time they lost the power of self -protection, could 
no longer live independently, and therefore remained where they were 
to become (as has been mentioned concerning Argentine stations) the 
tributaries of unreclaimed savages, or passive communities whose 
original character has been lost through intermixture with foreigners. 
Christianity never propagated itself among pure-blooded natives. At 
no time was this religion able to stand alone. It could not take root in 
that soil where its seeds had been planted. The aboriginal tribes of 
Paraguay who became converts have disappeared, and their remnants 
still wandering over Chaco wastes are now heathens. Men can not be 
remade on any plan however perfect. They can not be improved; but 
only- offered an opportunity for improvement which leads to better 
things or remains practically inoperative precisely- so far as their power 
or willingness to assimilate what is presented extends. This famous 
propaganda illustrates Montesquieu's maxim that no people really rise 
except througli institutions which blend with innate qualities belong- 
ing to themselves. But a small part of conversion here was effected 
b} T love. In spreading the faith, as in every other direction enterprise 
took, these wretched Indians, Sir Arthur Helps remarks, were subjected 
to "each variety of form which oppression has ever taken," a and it 
killed them — that is all. 

As previously said, topographical features determined the fitness or 
unadaptedness of districts for tillage, and consequently controlled 
existing distributions among indigenous populations, together with 
their respective social grades. River bottoms could be cultivated 
most successfully, and after these, those forest opens "within which," 
says Dobritzhoffer, "there is an amazing produce of maize, with other 
fuits and also tobacco. " Perhaps corn was autochthonous here, or hav- 
ing been introduced at some remote prehistoric period, it subsequently 
formed a distinct variety of the original Euchloena grain. A doubtful 
origin does not affect its economic importance, however, and we ma} T 
feel assured that whatever state Paraguayans were in when their 
Spanish conquerors arrived, this mainly depended upon its presence 
or absence. Other vegetable foods besides maize grew plentifully, 
although judging by what is known of agricultural methods among 
extant aborigines similarly situated, cultivation scarcely went further 
than an imperfect clearing, putting like plants together and irrigating 
the ground. "Three kinds of potatoes, very large and well-flavored," 
Father Martin remarks, with mandioca and peanuts were staple pro 

« Letters on Paraguay, London, 1839. 
«The Spanish Conquest in America, London, 1873, Vol. Ill, p. 112. 



62 PARAGUAY. 

ductions, but hardly anything has been recorded concerning the care 
bestowed upon mate, guava, yatai, cacao, etc. Mimosas, palms, and 
acacias furnished immense quantities of alimentary substances. 
Balanza found a large number of obscure shrubs yielding nutritious 
matters no doubt familiar to natives; edible seeds, roots, tubers, gums, 
nuts, saps, fruits, existed in abundance. De Candolle asserts that 
uncivilized men never utilize all those supplies which are available, 
but this country was as well stocked with comestibles as Brazil, while 
they were far more equably distributed and therefore effective. 
Dardye's list of food-producing plants, Azara's earlier compilation, in 
fact all the literature which has accumulated around this subject, 
leaves no doubt about those vegetable resources abounding here, and 
with direct aliments, these peoples either had or possessed materials 
for manufacturing many important accessory foods. a Paraguay tea, 
was generally used, as also tobacco, acid juices, peppers, mandioca or 
other sauces, honey and palm wine; indeed an endless variety of chicas, 
that might be employed as appetizers, aids to digestion, and preventives 
of excessive retrograde change. Fortunately for them these Indians 
having no metallurgic knowledge and very little good potters' clay did 
not construct stills like numerous tribes on the Amazons, thus escaping 
the worst effects entailed by intemperance until Europeans came. 

Their waters and hunting grounds seem to have contained more 
game than any others in South America. Crustacea?, arthropods, 
fish, amphibians, filled streams and lakes. Forest birds aquatic forms 
of indigenous or migratory species, resorting to every kind of habitat 
the country afforded, were so numerous that in this respect Paraguay 
stands by itself. 

Deer and tapirs, the peccary, capybara, bizcacha, monkey, bear, 
with a number of quadrupeds such as are not eaten by civilized 

a The term food comprehends all substances by which energy and tissue material expended in vital 
activities of every kind can be reconstituted. Primarily, an ability to repair waste depends upon 
those force-giving and structure-building constituents that aliments contain; secondarily, on the 
extent to which these are appropriated during their reduction by digestive action. Dietetic values 
vary with several conditions. Faulty preparation leaves indigestible elements and often removes 
valuable parts of nutritives. Monotony in regimens causes them to become distasteful and conse- 
quently inefficient. Bad cooking acts detrimentally in both ways, besides rendering food insipid or 
positively disagreeable, thus making complete assimilation impossible, because without some grati- 
fication of taste reparative processes always remain imperfect. From civilization to savagery by 
much the larger part of mankind are more or less exposed to those disadvantages mentioned, 
and as circumstances can not be changed men have everywhere employed agents which mitigate 
the detrimental effects of malnutrition — give flavor, excite appetite, aid resolution, make smaller 
amounts equivalent with larger quantities, relieve those discomforts deprivation causes. Generally 
such devices originate undesignedly and are practiced throughout all social grades without being 
understood. Many accessory foods lead naturally to abuses, but as a matter of physiology and physi- 
ological chemistry, that tendency toward excess does not transfer them into the fields occupied by 
sentiment or doctrine. Tonics, savors, narcotics, stimulants, answer to nearly universal needs and do 
much more good than harm; as an actual fact their daily use enables incalculable numbers of people 
to live who otherwise could scarcely find support. Finally, stimulation of some kind initiates every 
function living bodies perform; no organ does its part without being excited. Moreover, stimulus 
is not always followed by morbid reaction, and the former very frequently becomes an obvious 
necessity when requirements of life can not be obtained. No doubt Paraguayan Indians died from 
intemperance, but there can be no question that their chicas were, upon the whole, beneficial. 



PARAGUAY. 63 

peoples, prevented what Africans call ''meat hunger" from afflicting 
these indigenes, who, besides the animals mentioned, appear to have 
domesticated certain species. Early chroniclers constantly make state- 
ments which can only mean that huanacos — an alpine group once 
much more widety spread along Andean highlands than it is now — 
had been brought from Bolivian heights and acclimated throughout 
the lower levels of Paragua}^, as it was both in Chile and Peru. Their 
"fowls," however, "poultry like we have at home," as Spanish writ- 
ers frequently say, was certainly derived from foreign sources — from 
the west or north, where Europeans made their first settlements — and 
if not thus procured, then these annalists mistook wing-tipped wild 
ducks and geese for domestic varieties. 

Plenty of provision does not necessarily imply proper nourishment, 
however, and without that men can not be well, happy, or prosperous. 
Savages never live physiologically and never escape the penalties, men- 
tal and physical, attaching to malnutrition. While discussing the rela- 
tions sustained by nutritive states to the structure and transitional 
stages of Brazilian, Argentine, or Chilian societies, so much as these 
nontechnical papers permit has been said concerning a function which 
underlies and controls all that human beings feel, think, and do. The 
production, accumulation, or distribution of food stuffs was sensibly 
affected b}^ general conditions among different populations. Roughly 
dividing the inhabitants occupying this land into sedentary groups or 
nomadic tribes, these latter would live in comparative plenty and then 
suffer from want, as fish runs or bird flights varied, accordingly as 
animals made those uncertain movements characterizing nearly all 
species of every great natural game preserve. Pueblo Indians were 
exposed to other influences. They were brought together by the 
Parana-Paraguay system, on whose streams necessity kept them, and 
throughout an unusually well-peopled region, considering its social 
status, more turmoil, displacement, and destruction took place than 
could possibly have occurred if aboriginal aggreges had been less 
concentrated. No connections founded upon force, neighborly regard, 
mutual profit, or expediency are known to hav^e strengthened such 
places, and it is evident that before foreign invasion caused uni- 
versal ruin, savages constantly plunging about in fire and blood 
must needs inflict or endure misfortunes which for every reason 
entailed destitution. This always implied the dissolution of societies 
without any chance for recomposition — the factors upon which recu- 
perative processes depend being absent. Additionally, faulty agri- 
culture involves periodical distress everywhere, while those constants 
in savagery — want of foresight or self-control, with an invincible 
repugnance toward regular occupation — must have brought about a 
like result apart from war and seasonal vicissitudes. Privation was 
occasioned by many causes, but invariably men failed, sickened, and 



64 PARAGUAY. 

died from it, either directly or indirectly, although during periods 
antedating European invasion, dissolution proceeded less rapidly than 
would have been the case had nature not provided their country so 
bountifully. 

Certain observations upon Paraguayan aborigines still remain to be 
made — mainly disjointed statements of old annalists who seldom relate 
anything fully. Cranial deformation is one of these ethnographic 
details, a device for improving personal appearance in vogue all over 
this continent. Topinard" refers to the contour here mechanically 
produced as cuniform (to use Gosse's words, " Deformation cuneiforme 
couchee "), like that distortion Im. Thurn b describes among Guiana 
tribes, and Tylor c points out the prevalence of in so-called "Tupi- 
Carib" communities inhabiting east Brazil. Porto Seguro^ likens the 
resultant shape to a bishop's miter — "Parecidas a mitras de bispos" — 
which was produced by antero-posterior compression, obviously caused 
intentionally, and not an accidental distortion following pressure upon 
heads incompletely ossified during infancy b3 r cradle boards, slings, or 
basket cradles. Little precise information respecting this custom as 
it existed here can be obtained. It was abolished consequently upon 
an ex cathedra decision to the effect that American Indians were 
human beings, given by Paul III in 1537. Previously, those enormi- 
ties they endured aroused protest from a strong party within the 
church, but remonstrances and denunciations met with a strange 
reply, namely, that these natives had no souls, and therefore those 
charges preferred, even when true, did not amount to more than 
venial transgressions. Finally Bishop Ortez in his famous memorial 
declared that all indigenous peoples of the New World "were as 
incapable as brute beasts," and ecclesiastical controversies thus excited 
ultimately produced His Holiness's brief. Being really men, it became 
sinful to change their natural shape, so head flattening ceased among 
inmates of mission stations, and we hear no more about the practice 
until modern ethnologists occupied themselves with its various styles. 
They have no*, shown that compression affected cerebral growth or 
mental capacity, nor has anthropology made any advance toward 
" detecting a definite connection between shape of the cranium, con- 
formation of the face, and structure of the brain." 6 In fact, as this 
subject stands, it is rather a matter of curiosity than scientific interest. 
Furthermore, Topinard's cuniform type should not be assigned to 
all the Guaranian group as at present recognized. Nothing can be 
less probable than aggregates, so unlike in other respects, combining 

a Elements d' Anthropologic Generale. Paris, 1885. 

& Among the Indians of Guiana. London, 1883. 

c Anthropology. N. Y., 1881. 

dHistoria Geral de Brazil. Rio de Janeiro, 1878. 

eVischow. Entwickelung des Schadelgrundes. Berlin, 1871. 



PARAGUAY. 65 

to follow a single fashion; besides which many ancient crania present 
no sign of deformation. 

There were elements attaching to societies here, issues from their 
developmental conditions, that could not fail to be injurious. A nor- 
mal increase of population such asunder favorable circumstances would 
have accompanied exceptional food resources, was checked by polygamy. 
It did not prevail, apparently, among some few indigenous subdivisions, 
yet generally a plurality of wives was the rule. Woman's position and 
treatment, though occasionally good considering she lived with savages, 
usually partook of those misfortunes which her sex suffers among 
primitive mankind, and this also, though in another way, tended 
toward infertility. Wherever the unmixed natives of tropical Amer- 
ica are now found, their sexual relations are extremely loose. Aver- 
age travelers lay stress upon ceremonial observances or tribal penalties 
intended to promote morality; but prohibitive measures, as every- 
where, accomplished nothing effectual, fell into disuse, were evaded, 
came to naught, like ordinances opposed by public feeling always do. 
These aborigines are much the same in this respect now as formerly. 
They did not need to acquire natural vices from white men. That 
baseless generalization which makes the whole American race cold and 
continent may be disproved by observation in any province from 
Costa Eica to Buenos Ayres. On the other hand, Paraguay was com- 
paratively free from infanticide, and Father Martin praises Guaranis 
for not employing preventive means which often proved fatal to both 
mother and child among other Indians. An explanation of that supe- 
rior virtue is, however, obvious— scarcity did not urge them toward 
this crime; they could feed a numerous offspring. Enough is known 
concerning the characteristics of undeveloped minds to make it plain 
that intemperance here must have been very common and its degenera- 
tive or actually pathological results felt severely. When honey wine 
has nearly depopulated whole districts in northeastern Africa, Para- 
guayans, with this liquor besides a superfluity of other intoxicants, were 
not likely to live soberly seeing they had neither the brain function 
nor mental organization essential to self-restraint. Missionary priests 
deplore and condemn their excesses, not being aware that these occurred 
inevitably. Nevertheless it needs inordinate quantities of chica to 
cause alcoholism, and drunkenness therefore scarcely produced its 
worst effects before imported spirits could be bartered for at 
every trading station, and rum, with the process of manufacture, had 
become familiar to those natives who worked on sugar-making estates. 
A knowledge of distillation, with ready-made liquor easily procurable, 
notably accelerated downfall; they wasted health, strength, substance, 
in temporary excitement or transient forgetfulness, and drank them- 
selves to death by thousands. 
85 a— 02 5 



66 PARAGUAY. 

Old Paraguay had been peopled from Quaternary times until the 
sixteenth century without getting be}^ond rudimentary village com- 
munes; then its native populations speedily vanished, leaving few traces 
behind. Humanity does not i n variably progress ; never, indeed, despite 
inimical influences, and when greatness in a race is not imminent. Even 
an outline of prevailing conditions would seem to convey the assur- 
ance that they could not have issued otherwise than in those disasters 
which befell this countiy during pre-Columbian eras and after Spanish 
invasion. 



Chapter VIII. 



CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 

Since the 24th of November, 1870, Paraguay has had a constitutional 
government, republican in form. How, by whom, and under what 
circumstances this constitution was framed has been properly stated 
in Chapter V of this Handbook (see p. 25). 

The instrument declares Paraguay to be a Republic, and following 
the example of the United States of America vests the powers of the 
Government in three coordinate, coequal, and independent branches' or 
departments called, respectively, legislative, executive, and judicial. 
It recognizes the principle that the sovereignty resides in the people 
and that it is delegated by it to the authorities; but it also declares 
that the people itself does not rule, or can lawfully attempt to do the 
business of the government, except through their properly elected 
representatives and the regularly constituted authorities. 

The legislative power is vested in an Assembly called National Con- 
gress, which meets at Asuncion every year, and consists of a Senate 
and a Chamber of Deputies. Both Senators and Deputies are elected 
b} 7 the people, by universal suffrage, in the proportion of 1 Senator 
for each 12,000 inhabitants and 1 Deputy for each 6,000. 

The Senators are elected for six years and can be reelected, but one- 
third of their number has to retire every two years. 

The Deputies are elected for four years, but half of their number 
must retire every two years. 

Measures affecting taxation are to be originated in the House of 
Deputies. 

The executive power is vested in the President. In case of death 
or inability of the President the Vice-President, who is ex officio the 
President of the Senate, shall act in his place. 

The President and the Vice-President are elected for four years, by 
an electoral college, and can not be reelected except after an interval 
of eight consecutive years. 

The President is assisted in the exercise of his functions by a Cabinet 
(Ministerio) consisting of five ministers, whose official titles are as 
follows: Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores (secretary of foreign rela- 

67 



68 PARAGUAY. 

tions), a Ministro de Hacienda (secretary of the treasury), Minis tro de 
Justicia, Culto e Instruccion Publica (secretaiy of justice, worship, 
and public instruction), Ministro del Interior (secretary of the interior), 
and Ministro de Guerra y Marina (secretary of war and the urvj). 

The principle of ministerial responsibilit} r is recognized by the 
constitution. 

Subordinate executive authority is vested respectively in ftie pre- 
fects of the districts and their subalterns. 

i The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice, sitting 
at Asuncion, and consisting of one Chief Justice and two Associate 
Justices. It is a Court of last resort, and is intrusted also with the duty, 
political in its character, as is the case in the United States of America, 
of passing upon the constitutionality of any law or matter brought to 
its attention in judicial shape. Dr. E. de Bourgade de La Dardye says 
that one of the glories of the judicial authority in South America is 
that the said authorit}^ has alwa}^s been maintained in its full dignity 
and independence, and that even in those countries in which the power 
of a dictator, or any other kind of autocracy, has prevailed for a time 
it has effectually resisted arbitrary demands. 

A high officer, called " Fiscal General del Estado," whose functions 
in many respects are analogous to those of the Attorney-General of 
the United States, is the legal adviser of the Government and the rep- 
resentative of the fiscal interests. He is also the head of the prosecut- 
ing attorneys of the Republic, and has to have intervention in all cases 
affecting the Government, as provided b}^ the laws on the subject. 

In addition to the Supreme Court of the Republic there is a Court of 
appeals for civil cases and another for criminal and commercial cases. 
These courts are called Cdmaras de apelacion. There is also a Crimi- 
nal Court (Tribunal dejurados), several Police Courts (Juzgados correc- 
cionales), Civil Courts (Juzg ados de primer a instancia), and Justices of 
the peace. 

The Courts alone can take cognizance of matters admitting of judicial 
controversy. Their jurisdiction is original and exclusive. 

Judicial action can be taken before the Courts against measures 
of the executive in the cases and in the manner and form prescribed 
by law. 

The full text of the Paraguayan Constitution is printed in Appen- 
dix No. 1. 

The Civil as well as the Commercial Codes of the Argentine Repub- 
lic, with certain changes and amendments, are in force in Paraguay. 
Their provisions are founded substantially on the principles of the Civil 
Roman law. 

There is a Penal Code and a Rural Code and a Code of military law, 
and several statutes regulating in the proper manner all branches of 



a All matters pertaining to colonization have been put in charge of this department. 



PAKAGUAY. 69 

the public administration. All these laws have been collected and 
published by authority of the Government. 

The Paraguayan Army, comprising infantry, cavalry, and artillery, 
consists at present of 1,500 men. 

In addition to this force, there is a National Guard which may be 
called out in ai^ emergency. Every Paraguayan between the ages of 
20 and 50 is bound to serve. 

The Paraguayan Nav} r consists, at the present time, of small steam- 
ships doing police and revenue service. 

Paraguay is diplomatically represented by Envoys Extraordinary 
and Ministers Plenipotentiary at Buenos Ayres, Rio de Janeiro, Mon- 
tevideo, and Paris. The Minister at Paris is also accredited to Lon- 
don and Madrid. 

In all other countries the Republic has Consuls-General and Consuls. 

The United States of America, the Argentine Republic, Brazil, 
France, Great Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, Belgium, 
Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands have accredited representa- 
tives near the Government of Paraguay. The respective residences of 
these Ministers are as follows: The United States Minister, Monte- 
video; the Argentine, Brazilian, and French Ministers, Asuncion; all 
the others, Buenos Ayres. 

There are Consuls of all nations in Paraguay. 



Chapter IX. 



POLITICAL DIVISIONS, DEPARTMENTS, DISTRICTS, CANTONS, 
PRINCIPAL CITIES, AND COLONIES. 

The old popular division of Paraguay into La Capital and La 
Campana (the capital and the rural districts) is still in use. The Para- 
guayan territory is divided for the purposes of government into 84 
circumscriptions called Partidos or Departamentos. But for the pur- 
poses of politics or legislation these 84 departments are grouped 
together and distributed into 24 districts {Distritos, or Distritos 
electorales). The Capital has 3 districts, called (1) Encarnacion and 
Lambare, (2) Catedral and Recoleta, (3) San Roque and Trinidad. 

The Campana has 21 districts, as follows: 

(1) The First District, consisting of the Departments of Villa 
Concepcion and Horqueta. 

(2) The Second District, formed by the Departments of Villa de 
San Pedro, Villa del Rosario, Tacuaty, Lima, Union, Itacurubi del 
Rosario, and San Estanislao. 

(3) The Third District, consisting of the Departments of Arroyos 
y Esteros, Emboscada, Altos, Atira, Caacupe, and Tobati. 

(4) The Fourth District, formed by the Departments of Piribebuy, 
Barrero Grande, and Caraguatay. 

(5) The Fifth District, consisting of the Departments of Itacurubi 
de la Cordillera, Valenzuela, Ibitimi, and San Jose. 

(6) The Sixth District, formed by the Departments of Ajos, Carayao, 
San Joaquin, and Caaguazu. 

(7) The Seventh District, formed by the Department of Villa Rica. 

(8) The Eighth District, formed by the Departments of Mbocayati, 
Yataity, Hiaty, and Itape. 

(9) The Ninth District, consisting of the Departments of Ihaca- 
guazu, Caazapa, and San Juan Nepomuceno. 

(10) The Tenth District, formed by the Departments of Yuty, Bobi, 
and San Pedro del Parana. 

(11) The Eleventh District, formed by the Departments of Villa 
Encarnacion, Jesus y Trinidad, Carmen del Parana, and San Cosme. 

(12) The Twelfth District, which embraces the Departments of * 
Santa Rosa, Misiones de San Ignacio, Santa Maria, Santiago, San 
Miguel y Villa Florida, and San Juan Bautista. 

71 



72 PARAGUAY. 

(13) The Thirteenth District, consisting of the Departments of 
Ibicuy, Mbuyapey, and Quiquio. 

(14:) The Fourteenth District, formed by the Departments of Qui- 
indy, Acahay, and Caapucii. 

(15) The Fifteenth District, consisting of the Departments of 
Carapegua, Paraguari, and Tabapy. 

(16) The Sixteenth District, formed by the Departments of Pirayu, 
Itaugua, and Aregua. 

(17) The Seventeenth District, embracing the Departments of Lim- 
pio, Luque, San Lorenzo del Campo Grande, and San Lorenzo de la 
Frontera. 

(18) The Eighteenth District, consisting of the Departments of 
Capiata, Ita, Yaguaron, Ipane, and Guarambare. 

(19) The Nineteenth District, formed by the Departments of Villeta, 
Villa Oliva, and Villa Franca. 

(20) The Twentieth District, formed by the Departments of Villa 
del Pilar, Villa Humaita, Isla Umbu, Laureles, Tacuaras, Desmocha- 
dos, Pedro Gonzales, San Juan Bautista del Pilar, Guazu-cua, and 
Yabebiry. 

(21) The Twenty-first District, which consists only of Villa Hayes 
and its territoiw. 

THE CITY OF ASUNCl6N. 

Asuncion, or La Asuncion, is the largest city in the country and 
the capital of the Republic. It is situated on the left bank of the 
Paraguay- River, in latitude 25° 18' south and longitude 57° 30' west 
of Greenwich. It is the seat of the Government and the see of a 
Bishop of the Roman Catholic Church. It was founded in 1536, and 
is therefore much older than Buenos Ay res. 

"The first part of the city seen on approach," says Consul Shaw, " is the remains 
of the arsenal built for Lopez by Messrs. Whitehead & Grant in the year 1861. It 
employed for some years about 300 men, among whom were 30 English mechanics, 
besides a few French and Germans, the rest being natives. They constructed and 
launched several mail steamers, which plied between Asuncion and Montevideo; 
also cannons, stoves, tools, bells, and a host of other useful articles were turned out 
in vast numbers. 

"As in all South American towns and cities, the streets cross each other at right 
angles, or checkerboard fashion, cutting the city into blocks of 80 yards square, the 
streets being 15 yards wide and the sidewalks from 4 to 5 feet wide." 

The appearance of the city is, in general, very neat and pleasant, 
and it is becoming more and more so every day. The Government 
has undertaken in earnest the completion of all the unfinished public 
buildings and the restoration of those which were left in ruins by the 
war, as well as many other improvements of all kinds in the city, and 
* the Paraguayan Congress has granted for these purposes the most 
liberal appropriations. 



PARAGUAY. 73 

Asuncion has a handsome Cathedral and fine parochial churches, as 
those named La Encarnacion and San Roque, a Palace for the Govern- 
ment, and a Hospital, a Public Library, a Custom-house, a College and 
University, two Market houses, a Theater, and some Depots or railway 
stations, which attract considerably the attention of the tourist. The 
city has also very fine quays and ship} T ards. 

The two unfinished structures which excite greatest interest, both of 
them started by Lopez, are the old Theater, an imitation of the cele- 
brated La Scala, at Milan, which occupies an entire block, and the 
Mausoleum, an imitation of the "Hotel des Invalides," at Paris, which 
Lopez undertook to build for the reception of his own body. 

There are a great many fine residences throughout the city and 
suburbs, which, with their surroundings of shrubs and flowers, form 
a picturesque and pleasing sight. The houses are generally one story 
high, and they are constructed in such a way that the necessit}^ of a 
fire department has never been felt. 

The city is well guarded and patrolled by police, and, as Consul Shaw 
says, ' ' crime and lawlessness are almost wholly unknown. " It is lighted 
with petroleum, but an electric plant will be soon established by an 
American Company known by the name of "Paraguay Development 
Company." 

Communication between the different parts of the city is facilitated 
by two lines of street cars, whose tracks are about 17 miles in length. 
There are three rural lines, one to Tacumbu, another to Trinidad, and 
another to San Lorenzo. The first and second are horse-car lines, the 
third is a steam line. 

In 1891 the business of Asuncion was conducted by about 420 houses, 
whose capital, in the aggregate, amounted to $2,000,000. a There are 
also four Banks and one Building Association. 

The Banks are: Banco Mercantil del Paraguay r , with a capital of 
$2,500,000; Banco Territorial, with a capital of $500,000; Banco de Los 
Bios y C. a , with a capital of $125,000, and Banco Agricola, with a 
capital of $3,468,31:1. The Banco Mercantil has branches at Villa 
Concepcion, Villa Encarnacion, Villa del Pilar and Villa Rica. 

Two new Banks have been recently founded, namely, Coy a de Credito 
Comercial and La Edificadora. 

One morning and five evening' papers are published daily at Asun- 
cion. The daily papers are "El Diario Oficial," which is the Govern- 
ment's organ, " El Paraguay," " La Democracia," "El Civico," "El 
Pais," and "LaPatria." 

The l ' Boletin Quincenal del Centro Comercial del Paraguay " appears 
every fifteen days. The "Re vista del Instituto Paraguayo, La Revue 
Mensuelle" (published in French and English), "El Archivo NacionaF' 

a The business houses in the whole country in 1900 were 2,298, representing a capital of $66,673,534. 



74 PARAGUAY. 

and the "Anales de la Universidad Nacional" appear every month. 
"El Porvenir," "El Estudiante," "El Enano," and "El Paraguay 
Rundschau " are weekly papers. ' w El Boletin del Congresso Nacional " 
is published daily, during the session of Congress. 

Consul Baker says that "No person can go to Paraguay without 
carrying away pleasant impressions." If he visits Asuncion he will 
find there a high degree of cultivation and a "refinement equal to that 
of any city of South America," and if he goes to the Campana he 
will be received with such abundant hospitality as to make him feel 
at once that "he is in the midst of friends." 

Consul Baker speaks also with great ^praise of the College and the 
schools of Asuncion, and says that its Public Library contains several 
thousand volumes, among which he was pleased to see the works of 
many American law writers, such as Kent, Story, Wheaton, Greenleaf , 
and others, of the American historians, Bancroft, Prescott, Irving, 
Motley, and others, full sets of Appleton's Enc}^clopedia, etc. 

VILLA RICA. 

Villa Rica is a flourishing city of about 25,074 in! abitants. It is 
situated in the interior of the country, at about 90 miles east of Asun- 
cion, in the midst of a rich agricultural region, with hills running east 
and west covered with fine timber. It is connected by rail with the 
capital, and is in easy communication with it. The principal industries 
are cigar making and the manufacture of orange wine, bricks, tiles, 
etc. Its people deal considerably in honey, native brandy, called 
aguardiente, fimber, leather, carts, nanduti embroidery, hammocks, 
cotton fabrics, etc. Villa Rica has some important commercial houses 
and a branch of the Agricultural Bank, or Banco Agricola. 

The fact that this city is surrounded by lands where tobacco and 
mandioca of the best qualities abundantly grow, and in the vicinity of 
hills covered with timber very suitable for furniture and building 
purposes, has made it an agricultural and commercial center of great 
importance. 

VILLA CONCEPCION AND OTHER TOWNS. 

Villa Concepcion has the reputation of being the second city of the 
Republic on account of its commercial importance. It is situated on 
the left bank of the Paraguay River, 213 kilometers from Asuncion. 
Its population is 13,654. 

It is a port of entry and delivery, where the steamers navigating the 
Upper Paraguay regularly touch. 

Its most important buildings are the City Hall, the Custom-house, 
the parish church, the Market house, and some fine private residences. 
It has a line of street cars, telephonic service, a bank, a branch of the 
Banco Mercantile of Asuncion, another branch of the Banco Agricola 



PARAGUAY. 75 

of the same city, and several commercial houses trading directly with 
the La Plata and the European markets. 

Its principal commerce consists of verba mate and cattle. 

The other towns deserving special mention are Villa del Pilar, with 
5,742 inhabitants; San Estanislao, with 10,920; Caazapd, with 14,914 
Zuque, with 14,777; Villa Encarnacion, with 10,724; Yuty, with 9,800 
Capiatd, with 9,207; Carapegud, with 13,930; Ytaugud, with 6,624 
Paraguanri, with 9,128; Villeta, with 7,072; Villa San Pedro, with 
7,987. 

VILLA HAYES COLONY. 

Villa Ha}^es, the chief town of the colony bearing the same name, 
is situated on the right bank of the Paraguay almost opposite Asun- 
cion. It was founded in the eighteenth century by Father Gonzalez, 
a missionary, and continued in a flourishing condition under the name 
of " Villa Occidental" (the Western Town) until 1855. Then Presi- 
dent Lopez changed its name to that of Nueva Burdeos (New Bor- 
deaux), because he brought over from Bordeaux and other neighboring 
places in France a number of immigrants to settle there. The claim 
was made by the Government of the Argentine Republic that the ter- 
ritoiy upon which Nueva Burdeos, or Villa Occidental, stands, as well 
as the town itself, belonged to the Argentine Republic and not to 
Paraguay ; and the question having been submitted to the arbitration 
of the President of the United States, at that time Mr. Rutherford B. 
Hayes, was decided in favor of Paraguay. The Paraguayan Govern- 
ment, in compliment to the arbitrator, again changed the name of the 
town and called it "Villa Hayes." (See Appendix No. 2.) 

This colony covers an area of 3,125 cuadras, and is watered hj the 
Confuso River on the south and the Rio Verde on the north. Agricul- 
ture in its various branches and cattle breeding are its principal indus- 
tries. Sugar cane, specially, is cultivated with considerable success. 

It has also several brick factories and a distilleiy equipped with the 
best machinery for the production of liquors, principally carta, or 
white rum. 

In 1890 the colony contained 91 families, consisting of 315 persons, 
of whom 112 were Swiss, 69 French, 38 Italians, 22 Belgians, and the 
rest Germans, Austrians, and Spaniards. 

The number of cnadras under cultivation in the same year was 389, 
which were divided in lines a and distributed as follows: 

Sugarcane, 9,504 lines; maize, 8,085; beans, 1,917; mandioca, 2,366; 
sweet potatoes, 2,555; lucern, 1,460; tobacco, 321; onions, 336; fruit 
trees, 17,605. 

a The Paraguayan square league contains 1,743 hectares, or 3,600 manzanas or cuadras. The square 
cuadra is equivalent to 10,000 square yards. The line is a square space measuring 100 yards on each side. 



76 PAKAGUAY. 

The exports from the colony to Asuncion in 1890 amounted to 
$40,280, out of which 121,840 were represented by 7,800 demijohns of 
carta. 

SAN BERNARDINO COLONY. 

The colony of San Bernardino was founded in 1881, on the same 
plan and with the same privileges as Villa Hayes. Its chief town, San 
Bernardino, has a good situation on the northern shore of the Ipacaray 
Lake, which is an attractive sheet of water, abundant in fish, lying at 
the foot of the Altos Mountains. It is two hours' journey by railroad 
from Asuncion. Owing to its topographical situation and pleasant 
surroundings, it has become a well-frequented watering place. Baths 
established on the banks of the lake and well-arranged hotels, generally 
in the shape of Swiss cottages, attract the people there during the 
summer. The whole country around this town is fairly settled. 
The wealthier inhabitants of Asuncion have fine residences there. 

Mr. Scharer, the Paraguayan Immigration Commissioner, reported 
in July, 1888, that San Bernardino had over 600 permanent residents, 
most of them Germans, engaged in agriculture and in the manu- 
facture of cheese and butter, which sells with advantage at the 
Asuncion market. Many colonists are owners of over 100 head of 
cattle each. As at Villa Hayes, considerable attention is given at San 
Bernardino to the cultivation of the sugar cane, and two mills are 
constantly at work extracting the juice, which is all consumed in the 
manufacture of the white rum of the country. 

In 1900 the population of this colony was 1,202. 

COLONIA NACIONAL. 

The Colonia Nacional, formerly called "President Gonzale's Colony," 
on account of its having, been founded by that distinguished person- 
age, is a veiy nourishing center of population. Full information about 
it was given in the chapter relating to Paraguay in Bulletin No. 53 of 
the Bureau of the American Republics, published in 1893, under the 
title of ' ' Laws of the American Republics Relating to Immigration 
and the Sale of Public Lands." 

Its population is 847 inhabitants. 

Its cultivated area is 950 cuadras. 

Its export trade in 1901 represented the value of 1245,971. 

Further information in regard to this colony will be found in 
Appendix No. 3. 

NUEVA ALEMANIA COLONY. 

The colony called Nueva Alemania, or New Germany, was the first 
private colony established on a formal basis in Paraguay. It was 
organized in 1887. It is situated in the Department of San Pedro, in 



PARAGUAY. 77 

latitude 24° south, at the junction of the Aguaray and Aguaray nii 
rivers, about 23 miles from the Paragua}^ River, with which easy^ 
communication is established by means of flat- bottomed boats and 
small steamers of light draft. 

The grant originally made by the Government in favor of Dr. Fors- 
ter consisted of 36 miles square, composed for the most part of virgin 
forests. Consul Shaw says that the land in this colon} 7 has been sold 
at the rate of $2 per citadra. 

The population of Nueva Alemania in 1890 consisted of 90 families, 
comprising 193 persons. 

The colony has 129 cuadras under cultivation, and 1,400 head of 
cattle. 

elise (San Antonio) colony. 

The colony of this name, which was started in 1890 by the Para- 
guayan and River Plata Bank, is situated in the Department of San 
Lorenzo de la Frontera, on the left bank of the Paragua} r River, 
at about 9 miles from Asuncion. 

Tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, ramie grass, and other valuable produc- 
tions are raised there. 

The conditions under which, according to Consul Shaw, the above- 
named Bank gives its lands to the colonists, are as follows: Each f amity 
is given 16 cuadras with a two-room house standing thereon, two of 
the cuadras being alread} 7 prepared for planting. The colonists are 
given also seed and agricultural implements. The price is $100 per 
cuadra, payable with interest in fifteen years, each installment being 
due within the first three months of each year. The Bank will also 
loan to colonists from $400 to $500, with interest at 10 per cent per 
annum. 

In 1890 the population of this colony consisted of 274 inhabitants. 

OTHER COLONIES. 

The other colonies are Nueva Australia, Veinte y Cinco de Noviem- 
bre, Cosine, Guillermo Tell, Colonia Catalana, and Hohenau. 

The Nueva Australia Colony is situated in the Department of Ajos 
and has a population of 597 inhabitants, composed of Paraguayans, 
Australians, and English. 

The Veinte y Cinco de Noviembre Colony is situated in the same 
department as the Nueva Australia, and has a population of 1,045 
inhabitants, mostly Paraguayans. The business of this colony is agri- 
culture and cattle raising. The cultivated area consists of 633 square 
cuadras. 

The Colonia Cosine, in the Department of Caazapa, is inhabited by 
Australians, and has a great future. Its population consists only of 
93 inhabitants. The foundation of this colony is very recent, but in 



78 PARAGUAY 

spite of this fact the colonists have a school, some stores, a carpenter 
shop, a shoe factory, a sawmill, a tanning establishment, and 65 cua- 
dras under cultivation. 

The GuiUermo Tell Colony is situated near Taeurupucu, on the con- 
fluence of the Monday and the Parana rivers. It was founded in 
1893 by Dr. Moises S. Bertoni. Its population consists of natives of 
Switzerland, all engaged in agriculture. 

The Oolonia Catalana, situated in the Department of Villa del Rosa- 
rio, has a population of 71 inhabitants. Its cultivated area measures 
58 cuadras. Head of cattle in the colony, 970. 

The Hohenau Colony, situated in the Villa Enearnacion district, con- 
sists of 117 inhabitants, of Brazilian, German, and Paraguayan 
nationalities, most of them engaged in the cultivation of coffee. 

The Paraguayan land law of 1885 and the principal provisions of 
the Executive Decree of February 26, 1902, regarding grants of lands, 
will be found in Appendix No. 1. 



Chapter X. 



AGRICULTURAL WEALTH. 

Agriculture is the principal source of wealth for Paraguay. The 
fertility of the greatest part of the Paragua}- an soil is almost inex- 
haustible, and abundant crops can be obtained almost by the mere 
scratching of the earth with the rudest of implements. Manure is 
neither used nor needed. Foreign colonists have introduced improved 
methods of cultivation, and the crops have increased in proportion. 

THE YERBA. 

The yerba, or yerba mate, also called "Paraguayan tea," is the chief 
and most distinctive product of the country. 

The plant from which it is made or taken is an evergreen bush, 
resembling in some respects the orange tree, about 8 feet high, which 
grows wild in a large portion of the territory of Paraguay, in the Bra- 
zilian provinces of Matto-Grosso r Parana, and others, and in the Argen- 
tine province of Misiones. Its botanical name is Ilex paraguayensis. 
It belongs to the llliniceae, family. 

The districts in which this plant abounds are called "yerbales," and 
the most famous of these yerbales are those of Chirigiielo, Tacurupyta, 
Concepcion, Caaguazu, Tacurupucu, Yuti, and Jesus. 

In the time of the Jesuits this bush was cultivated with care. They 
owned at Santiago a yerba grove with no less than 20,000 trees. The 
cultivation was discontinued thereafter; but efforts have been made in 
recent times, with considerable success, to revive it. The probabilities 
are that before long the business of making "yerbales artificiales" 
will be ampl} 1 - remunerative. 

The yerba — that is to say, the commercial article — consists of the 
twigs and leaves of the yerba bush, dried and reduced to a kind of 
coarse powder. Sometimes the dried leaves of the plant are packed 
together without passing through any grinding process, and in this 
way they are now being sent to Europe. An infusion of either the 
leaves or the coarse powder is used for the same purposes as tea. 

The name of u mate," under which the beverage thus prepared is 
designated, proceeds from the apparatus in which it is prepared, con- 
sisting of a kind of gourd where the yerba is placed and where the hot 
water is poured upon it, and of a peculiar tube or pipe through which 
the infusion is sipped. 

The yerba contains 1.850 per cent in grams of caffeine. The mate 
when prepared with hot water possesses the same general properties 

79 



80 



PARAGUAY. 



as economical agent as the caffeine, bat when prepared with cold water 
is nutritious and restorative (Parodi). 
The ' * Lancet " says : 

Mate tea possesses the advantage of being a refreshing and restorative beverage, 
owing in a large measure to the theine it contains, without the evil effects of 
astringency. 

The "British Medical Journal" says: 

The mate tea is useful in cases of dyspepsia, in which tea proper, owing to its 
energy or to the astringent substances it contains, proves injurious. 

The " Society of Arts Journal" says: 

The mate tea has a peculiar invigorating power Avhich neither the tea of India or 
of China nor the chocolate can pretend to possess. Travelers who drink mate tea 
can walk for six or seven hours without feeling any desire for food. 

A company has been recently organized in London having for its 
object to popularize the use of the yerba mate. 

The Paraguayan yerba is considered to be superior to that grown 
elsewhere and is cheaper than coffee or tea. While coffee involves a 
long process before it can be shipped, yerba can be prepared in thirty- 
six hours. Efforts to introduce it in Europe have failed, but it is 
used by millions of people in Brazil, the River Plate countries, Chile, 
Peru, and Bolivia. 

In referring to this point, Consul Shaw says (Report of 1891) as 
follows : 

The extent of the forests of the Sociedad Industrial Paraguay a (Paraguayan Indus- 
trial Company) in the Departments of Concepcion, San Pedro, San Estanislao, 
Igatimi, and Tacurupucu consists of 400 square leagues, according to titles of pur- 
chase under surveys of Real de Oliveira and Santiago Rivas. The production for the 
present year w T ill not be under 500,000 arrobas (the arroba is 25 pounds). The 
entire output of the yerbales for the year 1890 will be about 800,000 arrobas, and it 
is estimated that 1,000,000 arrobas can be gathered yearly. The average price for 
the yerba in the present year is $5 per arroba. The total production represents a 
value of $4,000,000. 

The Sociedad Industrial Paraguay a, with 400 square leagues of forest, produces 
nearly 500,000 arrobas. The 1,000,000 arrobas which are calculated as the maximum 
output yearly should represent, without fear of committing an error, the existence 
of yerbales to the extent of 800 square leagues. Every year new ranches are estab- 
lished, and it may be safely stated that the extent of the yerbales, or forests, of 
Paraguay was 1,000 square leagues at the close of the year 1890. 

The following table shows the amount of yerba exported between 

1881 and 1886: 



Year. 


Arrobas. 


Value. 


1881 


496, 876 
518, 381 
622, 801 
583, 481 
493, 531 
442, 940 


$621,095.00 
647, 976. 25 
778, 501. 25 
729, 351. 25 
616, 913. 75 
553, 675. 00 


1882 


1883 


1884 


1885 


1886 





PARAGUAY. 81 

In 1894 the experts reached the sum, never equaled before or after- 
wards, of 766,850 arrobas. 

Mr. E. L. Baker, Consul of the United States at Buenos Ayres, sent, 
under date of. November 30, 1882, to the Secretary of State of the 
United States, a Report bearing specially upon this subject, which was 
published from page 245 to page 252 of Consular Report No. 28, corre- 
sponding to February, 1883. The importance of this Report justifies 
its reproduction in full in this Handbook as Appendix No. 5. 

SUGAR CANE. 

The sugar cane is cultivated on a large scale and produces very well 
The sugar mills of the countr} T , generally consisted, until recently, of 
two heavy rollers of hard wood in a massive timber frame, geared 
together by wooden cogs, set in motion by a pole fastened by strips 
of rawhide to the horns of a yoke of oxen, who are driven around in 
a circle. The cane is passed between these rollers, a handful at a time, 
and the juice thus extracted is strained through a coarse cloth and 
evaporated in an open copper kettle over a fire built in the open air. 
Granulation is seldom achieved. The usual product is in the form of 
thick molasses, and is stored in bags of hide until required for use. 

At the present time, iron machinery, capable of extracting from the 
sugar cane from 60 to 70 per cent of its juice, is of general use on the 
plantations. 

Consul Hill in his Report above cited said: 

Sugar cane is grown in all parts of the Republic, and of all the crops of the coun- 
try it is the surest and most lucrative. The growing of the cane is capable of almost 
indefinite extension, and should be the crop of the future. Three varieties give good 
results: The Saccharum officinarum, which is white and very sweet; the violet cane 
of Taiti, which reaches maturity sooner than the others, known to the world from 
having long been cultivated in the English possessions; and, lastly, a third species, 
with slender stalk, fluting green, and joints far apart, which yields much sugar and 
has been successfully introduced into the Argentine Republic. 

A plantation of sugar cane requires a minimum of work on the part of the laborer, 
as the same plant lasts for a period which varies from five to fifteen years, according 
to the nature of the soil and the kind of nurture. The only thing to be done is to weed 
out the grass at the time when the stems begin to show up. Nine months thereafter 
the cane is ready for cutting. Each hectare (2| acres) produces on an average 250 
azumbres (1 azumbre is equal to half a gallon) of molasses. * * * Notwithstand- 
ing the excellent quality of the cane, for the production of which both the soil and 
the climate are perfectly adapted, 500,000 pounds of foreign sugar are annually 
consumed. * * * 

The variety of sugar cane most valued in Paraguay is the one called 
^Tucuman,"" which yields a greater quantity of saccharine matter 
than all the others. It was introduced in the country by Senor Don 
Jose Segundo Decoud and was cultivated for the first time at Luque, 
from where it has been taken to the rest of the country and propagated 
with great success. 

In 1901 the plantations of sugar cane in Paraguay covered an area 
of 10.536 hectares, or 26,035 acres. 
85a— 02 6 



82 



PAKAGUAY. 



One hundred thousand kilograms of sugar cane can be raised on an 
area covering one cuadra, or 10,000 square yards. 

TOBACCO. 

Tobacco is one of the principal products of the country and is culti- 
vated in all sections of the same; but the article grown at Luque, 
Itagua, Ita, or Villa Rica is the most highly prized. The amount of 
tobacco exported rose in 1886 to 416,006 arrobas, and in 1890 to 615,301. 

Among the varieties of tobacco which are most valued at Paraguay, 
the "pety-canela," proceeding from seeds from Cuba, and the "pety- 
hobby," cultivated at Villa Rica, must be prominently mentioned. 

The commercial classification of the Paraguayan tobacco is as fol- 
lows: Para tobacco ; doble, or double ; hueno, or good tobacco; regular, 
or tobacco of fair quality; medio, or tobacco of average quality; and 
pito, which is the class most inferior. The Para tobacco has 6 per 
cent of nicotine, and the tobacco of the pito class, which is the mildest 
of all, has only 3 per cent. 

The Agricultural Bank (Banco Agricola) has made great efforts to 
propagate all over the country the seeds of the Habana tobacco, and 
the results thus far secured have been very favorable. The quality of 
the tobacco has been greatly improved by the new methods emplo\ T ed 
for drying and treating the leaves. There are good grounds for be- 
lieving that in a short time only one-half of the total production of 
Paraguayan tobacco will represent a value of $3,750,000 in gold. 

There are at present 9,679 hectares of land devoted to the cultiva- 
tion of tobacco. The Habana tobacco is always given preference. Its 
transformation into Paraguayan tobacco is rapidly accomplished, and 
the price of the article is thereby increased, to the benefit of the 
farmers. 

At the Paris exhibition of 1855 a gold medal was awarded for sam- 
ples of the pety-hobby and pety-para tobaccos. a The cultivation of the 
plant has increased greatty of late years, for in 1829 the crop amounted 
to only 2,675,000 pounds, and in 1860 rose to 15,000,000 pounds. 
Tobacco cultivation is very profitable and is said to yield 50 per cent 
on the capital invested. 

The following table shows the amount of tobacco exported during 
the six years elapsed from 1881 to 1896 and its official value: 



Year. 


Arrobas. 


Official 
value. 


Year. 


Arrobas. 


Official 
value. 


1881 


336, 030 
204, 827 
290, 352 


$672, 060 
409, 656 
580, 704 


1884 


125, 861 
214, 324 
416, 006 


$251, 722 


1882 


1885 . 


428, 648 
832, 012 


1883 


1886 







alt may not be inopportune to set forth here that Paraguay was awarded 39 prizes and 21 honorable 
mentions at the Buenos Ayres Continental Exposition of 1882; 36 prizes at the Antwerp Exposition of 
1885; 50 prizes at the Barcelona Exposition; a gold medal at the Paris Exposition of 1867, and 49 prizes 
at that of 1889, 31 prizes at the World's Fair at Chicago; and 50 prizes at the Brussels Exposition of 1897. 



PARAGUAY. 83 

The exports of tobacco during the last three years (1899 to 1901) 
have been at the average rate of 3,250,000 kilograms per year. 

COTTON." 

Cotton grows without difficulty throughout the whole country and in 
some localities reaches its highest rate of production. Before the 
war it was the greatest national staple, but at present its cultivation 
has declined, owing to the scarcity of cheap labor. In 1863 the cotton 
crop amounted in value to $450,000 in gold. It is to* be expected that 
when the population of the country returns to its former figures the 
cotton industry will recover its original importance, especially if the 
prices are remunerative enough to cover the expenses, which are 
relatively insignificant; but the future of this cultivation really 
depends upon the establishment in the country of at least one estab- 
lishment for the manufacture of cotton goods. The manufacture of 
sheeting and all other cotton goods for domestic use and for expor- 
tation to the Brazilian State of Matto Grosso may prove to be a very 
important undertaking. The Government would no doubt grant 
temporary assistance and privileges to an industrial enterprise of 
this kind and promote the cultivation of the plant, so as to secure for 
the factory an abundant supply of raw material. 

There are at present in the territory of the Republic 237,429 cotton 
trees. 

MANDIOCA. 

One of the' staple products of the country is what is called ' ' man- 
dioca," which is grown in large quantities. From its tuberculous roots 
a wholesome and palatable description of arrowroot, which serves as 
food for a great part of the people, is prepared. 

There are 38,208 hectares devoted to this cultivation. 

The mandioca starch can be exported in considerable quantities. 

INDIAN CORN, RICE, WHEAT. 

Indian corn. — Indian corn, or maize, abundantly grows all over the 
country. It frequently yields one hundred and fifty fold. It is, after 
mandioca, the chief support of the natives. 

Rice. — Rice, when cultivated, will yield as much as two hundred 
and fifty fold. Now it is only sown in limited quantities for home 
consumption. Before the war it was cultivated on a large scale, and 
the steamers of Lopez used to take to Buenos Ayres about 300 bags 
on each trip. The lowlands along the Tebicuari River are admirably 
adapted for this cultivation. There are 994 hectares devoted to it. 

The machinery for hulling and polishing the rice is imported from 
the United States. That used for sorting the grain generally comes 
from Germany. 

a See Appendix No. 7. 



84: PARAGUAY. 

Wheat. — The general impression which seems to prevail that wheat 
can not be grown in Paraguay on account of the warm climate is 
erroneous. All the experiments made before the war, in nearly all 
sections of the country, were successful. 

Barley and flax. — Barley and flax grow well and are cultivated on a 
small scale. 

COFFEE. 

The coffee tree of Paraguay produces a beautiful berry, full and 
Arm, and of exquisite flavor and aroma. The hope is entertained that 
it will be cultivated on a large scale; but owing to the scarcity of labor 
it is now grown only to a small extent, and most of the coffee used 
is imported. Five years are required before the flrst crop can be 
gathered. 

At Bernal-Cue, near the town of Altos, there is a coffee plantation 
with 100,000 trees, out of which there are 30,000 in perfect state of pro- 
duction. This plantation belongs to a German Company whose capital 
amounts to $800,000 in Paraguayan currency. 

The Agricultural Bank grants, as an inducement to the coffee 
growers, a premium of 30 cents for each tree in good state of cultiva- 
tion, and the privilege of borrowing mone} T from it, in the same pro- 
portion, on very favorable conditions. 

There are 165,557 coffee trees in the Republic. 

RUBBER. 

The manga ice, or India rubber tree (''curupicay "),• grows abun- 
dantly in the northern part of Paraguay. It yields an article of excel- 
lent quality. Another tree which produces excellent caoutchouc, 
called "manicoba," is also found in the country. 

TEXTILE PLANTS. 

Paraguay produces many fibrous materials of great commercial 
value. Prominent among these is the " caraguata," which grows spon- 
taneously everywhere in the Republic. The fibrous substance is in 
the long, thick leaves. The leaves of the plant are armed at every 
point with sharp-pointed needles, which render them difficult to han- 
dle. Experiments made in the preparation of the fiber for the market 
with machinery constructed in Arroyos and Esteros seem to be on the 
point of success. The " caraguata" is thought by some equal to the 
Indian jute. Consul Shaw says that the interest awakened in England, 
France, and Germany by this product makes it merit most serious 
study, and that there is no possible doubt that the best results would 
be obtained if the product could be worked with competent hands and 
proper machinery. 

Other textile plants are the "ibira," which is better for fine fabrics 
than the caraguata; the "ortiga gigante," the "cocoanut, 11 and the 



PAKAGUAY. 



85 



" guembepi," the " }^atahy," the " samuhu," and the ' " caaporopy . " The 
barks of many trees yield excellent fibers. Ramie can be cultivated 
with great profit; it may yield as much as six crops per year. 

FRUITS. 

On account of its soil, climate, and rainfall Paraguay is a country 
admirably adapted for raising fruit. The soil is porous and light, the 
climate belongs to the same isothermal belt as Naples, Malaga, Barce- 
lona, and Algiers, whose fruits are celebrated. There is nevertheless 
considerable room for improvement in the methods of growing, prun- 
ing, transplanting, etc. 

Says Consul Hill: 

Oranges. — In any enumeration of the fruits of Paraguay the orange naturally 
comes first, for this country almost merits the name of a land of orange trees and 
grovefi. Orange groves form the background of every view; every town is buried in 
heir luxuriant foliage, and they grow wild in every forest. The planting of this 
tree was introduced by the Jesuit Fathers, and being produced without nurture, 
from the seed which were scattered in all directions by the birds, their dissemina- 
tion has become universal. Millions of oranges rot on the ground every year for 
want of roads and means of transit to bring them to market* From April, when the 
fruit matures, to October the river boats carry great quantities to Buenos Ayres 
every trip, half a million frequently being piled up on the deck. They are delivered 
on board (women and children bearing them in baskets perched on their heads) at 
$3.50 per 5,000. It is estimated that the shipment of oranges last year aggregated 
50,000,000. 

The Paraguay orange is of large size and has a rich flavor. The tree begins to 
bear at six years. * * * The bitter orange grows wild. 

The exports for the ten years from 1881 to 1890 are as follows: 



Year. 


Number. 


Official value. 


1881 


23, 958, 850 
15, 761, 600 
24, 182, 200 
27, 275, 000 
30, 056, 300 
32, 482, 500 
36, 520, 000 
42, 800, 000 
52, 350, 000 
65, 000, 000 


$47, 917. 70 


1882 


31, 523. 20 


1883 


48, 364. 40 
54, 550. 00 
60.112.00 


1884 


1885 


1886 


64, 805. 00 


1887 


68, 306. 00 
70, 100 00 


1888 


1889 


75, 740. 00 


1890 


81 120 00 







The number of oranges exported in 1900 was 89,216,615. 

Eleven different industries, all of them lucrative, depend upon this 
fruit. The importance of some of its products is shown by the fol- 
lowing list of their prices per kilogram in the markets of Europe: 

Francs. 

Orange-flower water 2. 25 

Essence of bergamota 32. 00 

Essence of "toronja" 32.00 

Essence of lemon 22. 00 

Essence of neroli (southern) 750. 00 

Essence of neroli (Paris) 1, 000. 00 



86 PARAGUAY. 

Grapes. — The grape is indigenous to Paraguay, and was successfully 
cultivated in the time of the Jesuits, though, on account of the extreme 
moisture of the climate, it is liable to rot. There are now no vine- 
yards worthy of the name in Paraguay, but the cultivation of the 
grape is being revived with notable success. 

The Agricultural Bank has recently given an impulse to this industry 
by distributing, without charge, 300,000 cuttings. 

National wines are now being made. 

Tartago, peanuts, and cocoanuts. — Tartago is cultivated, although on 
a small scale, for the oil which its seeds contain. When the latter are 
hulled they are also exported. 

The extraction of oil from tartago seeds, peanuts, and cocoanuts 
constitutes one of the industries of the country. A very important 
establishment of this kind was founded at Asuncion by a gentleman by 
the name of Mr. Boetner, and does a nourishing business. 

Not less than 4,038 hectares of the territory of the Republic are used 
for the cultivation of peanuts, and the demands of this industry are 
constantly growing. 

The cocoanut tree is indigenous, grows wild, and is found all over 
the country in very large quantities. Its fruit is used for food and is 
also exported, but its chief importance is due to the oil which it con- 
tains, and which is of great value in the manufacture of certain kinds 
of soap. 

Bananas, etc. — The banana thrives in Paraguay and is exceedingly 
abundant. The hot summers bring it to perfection. 

The chirimoya, papa, cactus fig, nispero, pomegranate, cacao, quince, 
plum, pear, peanut, and peach all grow on the red soil. In addition 
to these fruits there is a number of excellent native ones, known 
by their Guarani names. Watermelons and cantaloupes grow well 
everywhere. 

The anana, or Brazilian pineapple (ahacaxi), deserves special men- 
tion. It was introduced in 1888, owing to the initiative of Don Jose 
Segundo Decoud, who was then Secretary of Foreign Relations. The 
plant is now cultivated all over the country. The most important 
plantations of this kind are those of Don Hector Carvallo, now Vice- 
President of the Republic, at Luque, and Don Juan E. Gonzalez, at 
Aregua. The ahacaxi has been also cultivated with great success at 
the San Bernardino and Eliza colonies, and at Patino-cue; and it is now 
exported to the countries on the Plata River. It is superior in quality 
to the native pineapple, which grows abundantly and is consumed in 
large quantities. 

TIMBER. 

One great source of wealth for Paraguay .consists of its forests of 
rare and valuable woods, man}^ of them possessing durability and 
powers of resistance such as no European woods can equal. 



PARAGUAY. 87 

Says Consul Hill: 

The very names of some of these trees, which exist in vast numbers in the virgin 
forests of the country, are comparatively unknown, except to botanists. The enu- 
meration includes 51 different kinds of timber especially suitable for building pur- 
poses, 69 medicinal, 43 ornamental, 15 dyeing, 38 fruit, and 8 fibrous trees and plants. 
A large number of these trees will sink when thrown into the water. The average 
gravity is 70 pounds per foot. In transporting these woods to market they are 
floated, supported by cedar rafts. Dyewoods of red, yellow, violet, and blue are 
found in large numbers; also excellent barks for tanning. Resinous trees and shrubs 
for varnishing, wild vanilla, and gum trees grow in great numbers. The quebracho 
and curupay are shipped abroad for tanning and coloring. 

The following data about the exports of timber in 1900 will prove 
to be interesting: 

Hard-wood beams yards. . 526, 629 

Cedar beams do. . . . 344, 362 

Hardwood {rollizos) kilos.. 4,600,273 

Quebracho {rollizos) do. ... 11, 313, 723 

Boards in general meters. . 48, 384 

Hard wood rods (rarillas) do 1, 076, 971 

CATTLE AND STOCK RAISING. 

Cattle raising is very profitable. Experienced cattlemen estimate 
the annual increase at the rate of from 20 to 35 per cent. At the close of 
the war the country was nearly depleted of horned cattle. On account 
of the better quality of grass and the abundance of shelter, cattle fatten 
more quickly and attain a greater weight in Paraguay than in the 
Argentine Republic. Improved breeds are being crossed with the 
original Spanish stock. There has also been a large increase in sheep 
raising. Horses and mules thrive, and hogs multiply themselves in 
enormous proportion, owing to the geniality of the climate and the 
abundance of food. 

According to official statistics, there were in Paraguay, in 1900, 
2,283,039 head of cattle, 75,363 horses, 107,426 mares, 4,067 asses, 
3,190 mules, 211,058 sheep, 32,331 goats, and 23,887 hogs. 

In 1886 there were 729,766 horned cattle in Paraguay. The greater 
part of these were imported from the Argentine provinces of Corrien- 
tes and Entre Kios and the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso. A 
yoke of oxen for the plow is worth $10; a milch cow, $15 to $25; a 
horse, $15 to $25; a riding horse for town, $60 to $80. 

The subjoined table shows the increase in stock for 1877, 1886, 
and 1890: 



Description. 


1877. 


1886. 


1890. 


Cattle 


200, 525 

21, 140 

1,299 


729, 766 

62, 386 

1 . 925 


861, 954 


Horses 


99, 693 


Mules 


2,433 
77, 576 


Sheep and goats 


6,668 32,351 
1,500 i 2,239 


Asses 


2.188 


Hoes 


3,026 i 12.250 1 10.778 











88 PARAGUAY. 

The recuperation in this industry has been quite remarkable, con- 
sidering that out of the large number of stock in the country before 
the war not more than 15,000 were left in 1870, and that little or no 
attention has been paid to cultivating breeds. The best lands for 
stock raising are in Misiones, San Pedro, Concepcion, and El Chaco. 

Says Consul Hill: 

The cheapness of the lands should be considered a great advantage to the stock 
raiser. Excellent land, well watered and wooded, w r ith fine, nutritious grasses, and 
admirably adapted in every way for stock raising, can be bought in Paraguay at" 
comparatively low prices. If the comer has not means or inclination to purchase 
lands, he may rent them at a nominal rate. A law was passed in 1880 by which 
Government lands can be leased for $60 a league. No trouble would be experienced 
in leasing large bodies of land from private parties. 

The estimated cost of a small cattle ranch in Paraguay is as follows : 

Gold. 
One square league of land, with water, timber, and good pasturage, average 

price $3, 000 

Fencing — 5 wires, posts every 2 yards, etc 907 

Dwelling house and offices 170 

Stock pens 60 

1,000 animals 5, 000 

Three laborers, at $41 per year >. 123 

Direct tax 9 

Miscellaneous expenses 300 

Total 9,569 



Chapter XL 



MINERAL RESOURCES. 

No particular importance has been given thus far to the mineral 
resources of Paraguay, not because of any scarcity of wealth in this 
respect, but because of the undeveloped condition of the said resources, 
owing to the absolute and exclusive preference which naturally has 
been given there to the pursuits of agriculture. 

The interesting book which Dr. E. de Bourgade La Dardye, pub- 
lished in French, in Paris, in 1889, with the title of "Le Paraguay" 
(The Paraguay), and which, translated into English, under the, editor- 
ship of Mr. E. G. Ravenstein, appeared simultaneously at London and 
New York in 1892, contains the following statement: 

An enumeration of the different minerals that are found would be very tedious. 
Suffice to say that the northern part of Paraguay, as far as latitude 22°, is covered 
with limestone, while the southern belongs to the sandstone formation and forms one 
huge mass of ironstone and manganese. Iron abounds everywhere. Marble is 
abundant in the north just as iron is in the south. Mines were worked in the time of 
Lopez. Pyrites are found in abundance. I have found a number of veins of copper. 
Kaolin exists in many districts, and I feel certain that the sandstone will prove to 
be bedded with coal, a commodity in which this fine country has hitherto been sup- 
posed to be deficient. 

The "Annuario Estadistico" of Paraguay for 1888, which is an offi- 
cial publication, says that "iron, copper, manganese, gold, marbles, and 
building stone of the best quality are found in Paraguay in the 
greatest abundance." 

There are in Paraguay four distinct varieties of soil, each one having 
its own special properties, namely: sandy, red, humus, and black soil. 

The sandy soil is either white or red. The former is the resultant 
of the wearing away of the quartz rocks of the great central and east- 
ern sierras, and its whiteness is almost dazzling. The latter is the 
detritus of the vast strata of sandstone which constitutes the main 
framework of the country. Upon the former nothing can grow except 
a few herbs, and consequently it is useless for any agricultural pur- 
poses. Upon the latter vegetation thrives, and vine, leguminous 
plants, pineapple, etc., vigorously grow. 

The white sandy soil is found only in a small locality, in the region 
of the Central Parana. But the red one is found in several places, 
and more especially around the capital. 



90 PARAGUAY. 

The second class of soil, which has been called red soil, consists 
of clay and quartz, 65.6; oxide of iron, 18.7; lime, 2.8, and miscella- 
neous substances, among which the carbonate of lithine is prominent, 
11.6. It is interesting to observe that this red earth of Paraguayis 
peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of the tobacco plant, and that 
in its chemical composition and in the quality which it imparts to 
the tobacco which grows on it, it is almost identical with the famous 
red earth of the island of Cuba. As in Cuba, this soil is not only 
propitious for the cultivation of tobacco, but also for that of maize, 
cotton, and coffee. It may be called the agricultural soil of the coun- 
try, and it is not infrequent for it to be several yards in depth. 

The third class of soil, which has been named "humus," and which 
lies within the virgin forests of the country, where it has accumulated 
for innumerable years, is the soil of the greatest fertility that can ever 
be found. To make it productive it is necessary, however, to bestow 
upon it a whole year's labor, as the land has to be cleared. But the 
toil will be amply rewarded, as there will be no risk of the toiler losing 
the benefit of his outlay. 

The fourth and last class of soil, called "black soil," consists of 
alluvial deposits, and possesses the best qualities for brickmaking. 
When baked it has a nice red color. When mixed with lime as a 
fertilizer, it can be turned into a first-class soil for agricultural pur- 
poses. It is this kind of soil which prevails through the whole of 
western Paraguay, and the grass which grow on its renders cattle 
breeding on an extensive scale not only possible, but easy and greatly 
profitable. Experimental plantations of sugar cane have yielded so 
far encouraging results. 

In order to make the information contained in this chapter more 
complete, the following is extracted from an article on Paraguayan 
minerals, which appeared in the "Paraguayan Monthly Review" for 
January, 1902- 

MANGANESE. 

This mineral is found in great abundance in the Cordilleras, where it presents 
itself between the layers of sandstone of that range. 

KAOLIN OR PORCELAIN CLAY. 

In the Departments of Caapucii, Ibicui, Quiquio, Villa Rica, Cordillera, Villeta, 
Luque, etc., it is found as a product of the decomposition of feldspathic rocks in places 
where granite formations prevail. 

TALC. 

Talc is found near San Miguel de las Misiones, in the quartz rocks which exist 
there. 

GRAPHITE. 

Generally it is found in irregular deposits among the crystalline and plutonic rocks. 



PARAGUAY. 91 



Iron is found in large quantities in the district of Caapucu. The veins of this 
mineral cross the heights of this district in all directions, and are very notable for 
the quality and high grade of the ore, as well as for their situation on the banks of 
the river Tebicuary, and by the abundance of forests in the neighborhood which 
provide the necessary fuel for its smelting. 

MAGNETIC IRON. 

Near San Miguel in the Misiones District, one league from the banks of the 
Tebicuary, magnetic iron is found at little depth, among sienitic quartzite rocks. 

HYDRIC OXIDE OP IRON. 

This mineral is found in great masses, and is widely distributed throughout the 
whole of Paraguay, principally in the sandstones in contact with volcanic rocks. 

The variety which is found in Villa Encarnacion, on the banks of the Upper 
Parana, contains 30 per cent of metallic iron and 48.3 per cent phosphoric acid. It 
is difficult to melt it by the blowpipe. It is soluble in muriatic acid. 

SERPENTINE STONE. 

Serpentine stone is known to exist in Paraguay, near the "Paso de Santa 
Maria," on the banks of the Tebicuary. It is of plutonic origin and very common 
among the rocks of primitive formation. 

It is a silicate of magnesia, easily worked, and, like marble, adapted to sculpture 
and architecture. Columns, plates, veneers and many objects of adornment are 
easily made from it. ' Its mass, by its capricious markings, presents colors and an 
appearance so beautiful that it is preferred in all luxurious constructions. The 
serpentine tenaciously resists atmospheric decomposition, and for that reason but 
little vegetation is seen within the limits where the same predominates. 

PORPHYRY. 

The zone of plutonic formation existing in the departments of Caapucu, Quiindy, 
and Quiquio is rich in the dark violet variety of porphyry and also in the red and 
black ones. The dark violet and the black are not so abundant, however, as the red. 



Near Villa Encarnacion there is a rich vein of basalt, whose mass is traversed by 
many veins of carbonate of lime, consisting of 56 per cent of lime and 44 per cent of 
carbonic acid. 

arsenic. 

Arsenic is found at Arroyos and Esteros, specially at a point a little more than a 
league south of that village. 

The rock containing it is a soft grindstone of yellowish white color with very fine 
laminae of white mica. The fossil remains which it contains consist of marine shells 
not very well preserved or clearly visible for classification of the families. Never- 
theless their trilobite characteristics are easily distinguished. They belong to a family 
of crustaceans of a very particular form. 

Other remains in the same rocks are undoubtedly tentacular whose definite classi- 
fication has not yet been accomplished. They were probably the arms or tentacles 
of some marine jelly fish of a primitive epoch. 

Generally fossils are scarce in the rock formations throughout the country. Only 
in the place mentioned and near Emboscada are they to be found. 

A very good treatise on Paragua} T an minerals can be found in the 
book of Mr. Du Graty, published at Besancon in 1862, under the title 
" The Republic of Paraguay." 



Chapter XII. 



INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES. 

Owing* to various causes, the full enumeration of which does not 
find a proper place in this Handbook, the Paraguayan nation has not 
as yet been able to reach that degree of progress, as far as manufac- 
turing industries are concerned, which, under other circumstances, it 
might have attained without difficulty. Few countries in the New 
World can be found where raw material capable of being used for 
manufacturing purposes is as abundant and excellent as it is in Para- 
guay, and few also can claim with better reason than that Republic to 
have devoted its attention to this important business at an earlier period 
of its history. 

When, in the } T ear 1609, the Spanish Crown turned practically into 
the hands of the Society of Jesus the pacification of Paraguay and the 
administration of the government of that portion, at that time so vast 
and important, of the Spanish dominions, great efforts were made by 
that illustrious organization not only for the education of the natives, 
by founding schools and reducing the Guarani language to a written 
idiom, but also for rendering them proficient in agriculture, archi- 
tecture, and many of the arts of civilized life. The aim of the Jesuit 
Fathers was to secure, as far as practicable, that everything needed in 
the country could be manufactured at home. 

All that has been left of those days, miraculously escaping the 
ravages of war and other calamities, from the magnificent Paraguayan 
churches, sumptuous monuments in more than one respect of archi- 
tecture and sculptural ornamentation, to the marvelous Paraguayan 
lace, which is called in the native language nanduti (cobweb), on 
account of its exceedingly fine texture, all done by the natives under 
the intelligent direction of the Jesuit Fathers, bears testimony to this 
assertion. a 

The Paraguayan people saw their soil strewn in those days with 
magnificent orange groves, splendid yerbales, and farms of all descrip- 
tions, and with factories of various kinds, which gave them work and 
contributed to their welfare. 

"The first printing office in the whole La Plata region was established by the Jesuits in 1702. 
Subsequently they established others at Candelaria, Loreto, Santa Maria, San Francisco, and other 
localities. The greatest number of the books issued from these establishments were printed in the 
Guarani language, and consisted of grammars and vocabularies of the same language and of transla- 
tions into it from the Spanish. 

93 



94 PARAGUAY. 

All of this was done away with by the misfortunes which in the 
course of time befell Paraguay, especially the disastrous war of 1865 
to 1870, which reduced the Republic to the mere wreck of a nation, 
although placing its people at the same heroic level as the Greeks. of 
Marathon and Thermopylae. But now that the internal quiet of the 
nation is fully assured, and those who are in charge of the Govern- 
ment are aroused to the importance of bringing foreign capital, lib- 
eral inducements are accorded to those who engage in manufacturing 
pursuits, the manufacturing business of the country, not less than its 
agriculture and everything else, has considerably brightened and 
increased. 

In 1900 the trades and industries were represented by 1,094 estab- 
lishments, with a capital of $135,448,066 currency, while commerce 
was carried on by 2,298 houses, with a capital of $66,673,534 currency. 

The capital represented by the cattle-raising industry can be esti- 
mated at $100,286,835 currency. 

COTTON AND WOOLEN FABRICS. 

The manufactures of the country consist chiefly of cotton and woolen 
fabrics, which the people use not only for underclothing, but also for 
dresses of both men and women. The spinning of the indigenous 
cotton — probably the most ancient art among them— is performed 
with the distaff, a slender spindle of wood twirled between the finger 
and thumb of the right hand as the fiber is drawn out from a tuft 
held in the left. The thread thus manufactured is remarkably fine, 
even, and strong. It is made into cloth in an equally patriarchal 
fashion. Weavers travel around the country with their looms, and 
frequently may be seen at work in the open air, the warp-roller hang- 
ing from a bough and balanced with stones as weights, while other 
stones, suspended by thongs of hide, raise the pedals. The thick 
woolen ponchos and saddle cloths woven by the natives are produced 
hj methods quite as simple. The warp is wound over a wooden frame 
and a rough boat-shaped wooden shuttle is passed in and out of the 
threads. But in this way effective patterns are made, general^ in 
black and white, or in a fine blue derived from the native indigo, and 
for durability these cloths -are not to be surpassed. 

Towels and other household articles of similar nature, made of 
native materials, are manufactured in all the Paraguayan villages. 

PARAGUAY LACE. 

The celebrated lace, which, owing to the similarity of its texture 
with that of the cobweb, has, as stated above, been called " nanduti," 
is made by the women of the country with cotton and other very fine 
fibers of native plants. Handkerchiefs and other articles made of this 



PARAGUAY. 95 

lace have attracted, whenever exhibited in Europe and America, the 
greatest attention. This lace is as soft and lustrous as the richest silk, 
and is practically indestructible. Some of the designs are exceedingly 
beautiful. President Solano Lopez had one chamber in his palace 
hung with patterns of this lace of the finest class on a background of 
crimson satin, fastened with clamps of gold. 

Consul Baker, in his Report, cited elsewhere, says as follows: 

The most remarkable industry in Paraguay, however, is the manufacture of lace. 
It is a specialty of the country, entirely in the hands of the Paraguayan women, and 
finds a ready sale in all parts of South America. The skill which they display with 
the needle is wonderful, the art being another remnant of the lessons taught by the 
Jesuits. The specimens of edging, inserting, lace handkerchiefs, worked chemises, 
head gear, mantillas, curtains, shawls, tidies, sofa backs, and even hammocks, which 
these women sell very cheap, would in any other country in the world command 
exorbitant prices. 

MANUFACTURE OF WINE AND BEER. 

Wine has been manufactured in Paraguay ever since the days of the 
Jesuits. The wine which was then made and called "'vino de la Cruz" 
is said to have been excellent. 

The vineyards of Senor Don Emilio Aceval and the Guanes Brothers 
at Asuncion, and of Messrs. Hippelein and Eyton at San Bernardino, 
produce excellent wines of the French type of Medoc and Sauterne. 

Senor Foss, of San Bernardino, has recently made an elegant orange 
wine, which is sold at the rate of $50 gold per barrel of 230 liters. 
There is an immense future in store for those who may engage in 
this industry, owing to the abundance of oranges and the small cost 
required for making this wine, which, when allowed to grow old, 
becomes similar to sherry. 

The last published reports contain the statement that two breweries 
have been established and are doing good business. The most 
important of the two is that of Senor Creydt, at Asuncion. 

CANA. 

Cana is the name given in Paraguay to a native rum of strong 
quality, which, like the one called in Cuba ''aguardiente de cana," is 
obtained from the fermentation of the juice of the sugar cane, either 
before being cooked or after having been reduced by the action of 
the fire to the thickness of a heavy sirup. The fermented liquid is 
then distilled. 

Primitive stills for making cana can be found in almost every vil- 
lage of Paraguay. The retorts are generally made of earthenware, 
and the operations are often performed by women. The results 
obtained are generally satisfactory, and very seldom it is seen that 
the cana of one plant of the country is not uniform in alcoholic 
strength and other qualities to the cana of all other sections. 



96 PARAGUAY. 

Many of the distilleries are conducted by French people, who have 
introduced the Egrot system of stills and considerabty improved the 
methods of fabrication. 

Among the brandies made out of the sugar cane there is one verj- 
similar to the Jamaica rum, the actual cost of which is 50 cents per 
liter. Some people deem it to be as good as the best cognac. 

It must be said in connection with this distillation business that con- 
siderable attention is now being given to the manufacture of cordials 
and other liqueurs. Wherever oranges grow it is possible to make 
bitters; but the country has also a great variety of aromatic plants, 
as the yerba, the guavira-mi, the ipabosy, the pineapple, and many 
others which can be and are successfully used for flavoring liqueurs, 
which are manufactured in large quantities and which in quality are 
far superior to those imported from France. The extraction of rich 
essences, both from oranges and other fruits, flowers, and leaves, 
which find a read}^ market in Europe, is another branch of the distill- 
ing industry. 

SUGAR. 

The manufacture of sugar is a very promising industry in Paraguay, 
but so far it has received no more attention than is necessary for the 
home consumption. It is calculated that 2i acres of land can produce 
in Paraguay, without an} T effort, 30 tons of sugar cane, which may 
yield in the proportion of 154 gallons of juice per ton, if the canes 
are passed through an iron mill moved either by horses or oxen. If 
the canes are passed through the ordinary wooden trapiche, the quan- 
tity of juice will be reduced to 110 gallons per ton. Should steam 
engines be used, as in Cuba and in other places, the amount of juice 
obtained would be very large. Most of the juice is used to manufac- 
ture cafia. 

There are now several small sugar estates, the most important of 
which, belonging to Don Vicente Noguez and situated on the banks of 
the Tebicuary River, near Villa Rica, produces from 70,000 to 80,000 
arrobas (from 1,750,000 to 2,000,000 pounds) per year. 

Domestic sugar has become of general use in the country, and the 
steady increase of its production will probably put an end to the 
introduction of this article from abroad. 

The greatest number of the centrifugal apparatuses which are in 
use in the country and which give the most satisfactory results come 
from the United States. 

MANUFACTURE OF CIGARS AND CIGARETTES. 

The excellent quality of the Paraguayan tobacco, and the habit of 
smoking which universally prevails in Paraguay have given a great 
impulse to the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes. 



PARAGUAY. 97 

The first cigar factory in Paraguay was established in the eighteenth 
century by Capt. Garcia Rodriguez Franca, the father of the famous 
dictator, who passed into history under the name of Dr. Francia. 
Now there are a great many scattered through the whole country, 
but the most important are those established at Asuncion, Villa Rica, 
and Itagua. 

The manufacture of cigars is now receiving a great impulse, owing 
to the improvement secured for the weed by the introduction of Cuban 
seeds. 

The best cigars, comparable with the richest made at Bahia, which 
enjoy so much fame along the River Plata, are made at Itagua. Sam- 
ples thereof have been recently sent to Europe and the United States, 
and the appreciation bestowed upon them for their excellent flavor 
and other superior qualities is greatly encouraging. 

TANNERIES. 

The tanning industry is carried on in Paraguay to a considerable 
extent. Tanneries are numerous. The people use for this purpose 
the barks of many trees, such as the quebracho, the curupuay, and 
others, which abound in the country and contain a large quantity of 
tannic acid. a 

But the methods and processes in use seem to be less advanced and 
therefore less productive of good result than elsewhere in Europe or 
the United States of America. Mr. Bourgade La Dardye remarks: 

It is strange for the European people not to have taken advantage of the oppor- 
tunities which Paraguay offers in this respect and undertaken there on a large scale 
the tanning business, which can not fail to be remunerative. 

FIBER. 

Consul Baker, in his Report above cited on Paraguay, of December 
15, 1883, says. in regard to this point as follows: 

A few years ago Messrs. S. B. Hale & Co., American merchants of Buenos Ayres, 
who own an extensive tract of land a few leagues above Asuncion on the Paraguay 
River, undertook the preparation of fiber, not only for roping and cordage, but also 
for woven goods, from a native Paraguayan plant called card-guatd, or wild pineapple, 
a species of aloes, I believe, which grows spontaneously in that part of the country. 
The tests which were made by experts from the United States were entirely satis- 
factory, the fiber being equal, if, indeed, not superior, to any that is produced in the 
world. * * * There is a future for this fiber equal to that which manila enjoys. 

POTTERY. 

The same Report says in regard to pottery: 

The exceedingly fine quality of the clays of Paraguay has long been known. 
Indeed, almost from time immemorial the natives have produced a variety of red 

a Quebracho extract was exported from Paraguay in 1900 to the amount of 1,316,000 kilograms, 
representing a value of 8394,000 gold. 

85a— 02 7 



98 PARAGUAY. 

earthenware, consisting of water jars, crocks, pitchers, basins, piping, drain tiles, 
roofing tiles, flooring tiles, bricks, etc., all handmade, whose beauty is remarkable 
and whose durability is almost marvelous. They have found a ready sale, not only 
at home, but in all the neighboring countries. Last year well-known parties from 
England, with a large capital at their disposal, brought out all the necessary machin- 
ery for embarking in this business upon an extensive scale; and while in Paraguay I 
visited their works at Aregua, a station on the railway about 20 miles from Asun- 
cion. The industry promises to be a most important one for Paraguay. 

The potteries of Ita produce some very curious and excellent articles. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

There are in Paraguay manufactures of soap, Italian pastes (maca- 
roni, vermicelli, etc.), artificial ice, matches, and other articles. 

Gum elastic or india rubber is manufactured from the sap of a tree, 
very abundant in the country, called " inanga-ice. " The article is of 
excellent quality. In Villa de San Pedro this industry is carried on 
to a considerable extent, but in a way rather primitive. "With the 
investment of a little capital," says Consul Baker, " this might become 
a valuable addition to the manufactures of the nation, as the demand 
for the article abroad always insures a ready market." 

Some years ago all the flour consumed in the country was imported 
from the Argentine Republic. Now many mills have been established 
and flour is exported to Brazil. One mill at Asuncion, belonging to 
a French gentleman named Mr. Saguier, yielded in 1887 14,000 
hundredweight of flour and 18,200 in 1888. 

DOMESTIC INDUSTRY. 

Under the auspices of the Commercial Centre the first Exhibition of 
domestic industry was held at Asuncion in 1901. The exhibits were 
arranged in twelve " sections," each one of which was subdivided into 
smaller groups called ' i categorias. " The following is the list of prices 
and exhibits: 

First section. 

Certificate of grand prize, or $100. 

Certificate of first prize, or $80. 

Certificate of second prize, or $60. 

Certificate of third prize, or $40. 

First category : Cloth in general. 

Second category: Ponchos in general. 

Third category: Blankets. 

Fourth category: " Jergas." 

Fifth category : Stockings, tablecloths, napkins, handkerchiefs. 

Sixth category: Shirts, undershirts. 

Seventh category: "5 T anduti" in general. 

Eighth category: Laces in general. 

Ninth category: Hammocks. 

Tenth category: Sundry woolen and cotton fabric:: 



PARAGUAY. 99 

Second section. 

Certificate of first prize, or $80. 

Certificate of second prize, or $60. 

Certificate of third prize, or $40. 

First category : Haircloth. 

Second category : Fabrics of vegetable fiber, except hats. 

Third category: Rope, made out of hair, "ybira," or other fibers. 

Fourth category: Matting. 

Fifth category: Straw, palm leaves, reeds, and other vegetable substances. 

Third section. 
Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, or $60. 
Certificate of third prize, or $40. 
First category: Brooms and brushes. 
Second category: Bone spoons, forks, and pitchers. 
Third category: Wooden forks and pitchers. 
Fourth category : ' ' Guampa ' ' forks and pitchers. 
Fifth category: "Guam pas" combs. 
Sixth category: Sundry bone and "guampa" articles. 

Fourth section. 
Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, o: $60 
Certificate of third prize, or $40. 
First category: Wooden, rattan, and leather chairs. 
Second category : Wooden articles in general. 
Third category: Rattan, tacuarembo, and guembepi articles. 

Fifth section. 
Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, or $60. 
Certificate of third prize, or $40. 
First category: Sweetmeats in sirup. 
Second category: Dry sweetmeats. 
Third category: Dry fruits. 
Fourth category: Cheese and butter. 
Fifth category: Sugar. 
Sixth category: Wines. 

Sixth section. 
Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, or $60. 
Certificate of third prize, or $40. 
First category : Dyes. 

Second category : Gums and sundry vegetable extracts. 
Third category: Essences. 
Fourth category: Wax and honey. 

Seventh section. 
Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, or $60. 
Certificate of third prize,jor $40. 
First category: Cotton fabrics. 
Second category: Woolen fabrics. 



100 PARAGUAY. 

Eighth section. 

Certificate of first prize, or $80. 

Certificate of second prize, or $60. 

Certificate of third prize, or $40. 

Only one category: — artificial flowers made with domestic materiala. 

Ninth section. 

Certificate of first prize, or $80. 

Certificate of second prize, or $60. 

Certificate of third prize, or $40. 

First category: Spinning wheels. 

Second category: Looms (complete). 

Third category: Machinery and apparatuses of all kinds for home industry. 

Tenth section. 
Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, or $60. 
Certificate of third prize, or $40. 
First category: Leather trunks and valises. 
Second category: Bridles of all kinds. 
Third category: Girdles for horses. 
Fourth category: Saddlery in general. 

Eleventh section. 
Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, or $60. 
Certificate of third prize, or $40. 
First category: Horticulture. 
Second category: Floriculture. 
Third category: Aboriculture. 
Fourth category: Fruits in general. 

Twelfth section. 

Certificate of first prize, or $80. 
Certificate of second prize, or $60. 
Certificate of third prize, or $40. 
Only one category: — pottery. 

Paraguay showed in this Exposition that its people are industrious 
and gifted with peculiar industrial aptitudes, which when properly 
developed will secure for the country a high degree of prosperity. 



Chapter XIII. 



COMMERCE. 

The foreign commerce of Paraguay is principally carried on through 
the ports of Uruguay and the Argentine Republic, especially Monte- 
video and Buenos Ayres, and by way of Brazil. As the trans-Atlantic 
steamers and other large vessels can not navigate the Parana or the 
Paraguay River as far as Asuncion, the merchandise which they carry 
or take away has to be transshipped. Montevideo is generally pre- 
ferred for this purpose, because it can be accomplished there at less 
expense. 

Mr. Ernest Van Bruyssel, who has written with considerable success 
as well as accuracy in regard to Paraguay, has suggested the Para- 
guayan port of Rosario de Santa Fe as the best place to be used in 
the future for the said reshipment, thus avoiding the difficulties and 
troubles which the use of foreign ports necessarily entails. 

It is shown by official statistics that during the period of ten years 
which preceded the war the exports from Paraguay, as well as the 
imports into its territory, never exceeded in value the figures of 1859, 
which were as follows; 

Dollars. 

Exports 2, 199, 678 

Imports 1, 539, 648 

Subsequently to the war, and during the years intervening between 
1880 and 1900, the movement of the foreign commerce was as follows: 





Exports. 


Imports. 




Exports. 


Imports. 


1880. 


$1,163,418 
1, 928, 000 
1, 650, 000 
1, 599, 000 
1, 572, 000 
1, 660, 000 

1, 642, 000 

2, 005, 610 
2, 588, 000 


$1, 030, 408 
1, 204, 000 
1,417,311 
1, 384, 000 
1, 448, 000 
1, 476, 000 
1, 622, 000 
2, 442, 277 
3, 289, 000 


1889 


$1, 720, 187 
3,901,589 
1,308,662 
2, 830, 873 
2, 211, 465 
2,608,486 
2, 510, 590 
2, 555, 924 


$2, 989, 518 


1881 


1890 


2, 725, 611 


1882 


1895 


1, 958, 250 


1883 


1896 


1, 888, 061 


1884 


1897 

1898 

1899 


2, 555, 271 


1885 


2, 463, 293 


1886 


2, 290, 752 


1887 


1900 


2, 652, 067 


1888 











If these figures are studied in connection with the fact that the pop- 
ulation of Paraguay was almost annihilated by the war, the conclusion 
has to be drawn inevitably that the Paraguayan people have increased 

101 



102 PAEAGUAY. 

their energy and activity in almost incredible proportions, and that 
their efforts to regain the lost prosperity have been attended with 
success. 

In corroboration of these statements the following paragraphs from 
an article published in 1894 by Senor Don Jose Segundo Decoud can 
be cited: 

Paraguay is at present far more advanced, economically and financially, than at 
any other time in the past. The exportation of tobacco has doubled itself, and that 
of yerba mate is more than trebled. 

In 1886, according to official data, more than 50,000,000 oranges were exported, and 
this is more than five times the exportation of former periods. (The oranges 
imported in 1901 were 114,155,620.) 

The increase in all other branches of industry and commerce has also been 
considerable. 

The revenues of the Government are at present as large as in 1862, if not larger. 
The Government receipts in 1892 were $2,731,507, and the value of the exports 
amounted to not less than $9,296,700 in national currency, although the country was 
still in the vortex of the great financial crisis of 1890, from which it has not yet 
entirely recovered. 

The country has improved very much in the matter of facilities of communication. 
The railroad line is now three times longer. Paraguay has Banks, lines of street cars, 
telegraphs, telephones, "colonies," and a number of industrial establishments, with 
machinery moved by steam. It has new and beautiful public and private buildings; 
and while it is true that it has neither a powerful army nor a navy, or armaments, 
fortresses, and arsenals, it has in exchange a large number of charitable institutions, 
schools, colleges, universities, and libraries. Public instruction has spread through- 
out the whole Kepublic, and popular education prepares the future citizens for the 
conscientious fulfillment of their duties, thus constituting not only a guarantee of lib- 
erty, but a formidable barrier against despotism or anarchy. * * * 

The population of the Republic did not increase to any extent during the first 
years which followed the termination of the great war with the allied powers 
of Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay, but as soon as the normal condi- 
tions were reestablished a rapid improvement in this respect was at once noticed. 
* * * There are good reasons to believe that in less than five years the Republic 
will fully recover from the detriment which it sustained in consequence of the war. 

We have ended our work. It is perfectly proven that the country has risen, with 
all the vigor of a young nation, under the shelter of its institutions. It is also 
demonstrated that its productive power is now greater than when it had a population 
of 800,000 inhabitants according to the statistics, or of 1,337,000 according to Dr. 
Gratz's calculations. 

The explanation of these facts is simple and clear. Tyranny, through its oppres- 
sive action upon the life of the people, obstructs, if not prevents, the national prog- 
ress. The development of the national resources and character can not under those 
circumstances be free and untrammeled. Liberty alone, in its various manifesta- 
tions, can foster individual activity, encourage labor, and promote the due develop- 
ment of the sources of public prosperity. The United States afford us the most 
beautiful example of the power and influence of free institutions in respect to their 
rapid aggrandizement and progress. 

The remarkable progress of Paraguay will be looked at with still 
greater admiration if it is remembered that in 1886, in consequence of 
the appearance of the Asiatic cholera at Uruguay and the Argentine 



PARAGUAY. 



103 



Republic, stringent measures were taken to prevent Paraguay from 
being visited by that scourge. The Paraguayan ports were closed to 
all vessels coming from the infected localities, and a great disturbance 
was thereby caused to the commercial movement. 

In his message to the National Congress, dated April 1, 1902, Vice- 
President Carvallo, says: ^ 

The value of the imports and exports during the past year was $5,532,964.42 in 
gold, distributed as follows: 

Imports $3,003,657.83 

Exports 2,529,306.59 

Balance in favor of the imports .._ 474, 351. 24 

The exports of Paraguay, by principal articles, for four years, 1888 
to 1891. were as follows: 



Articles. 


1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


1891. 


Cowhides. . 


Pesos. 

219, 183 
16, 990 

231, 269 
59, 180 
32, 084 
18, 000 

438, 188 
1, 293, 476 


Pesos. 

234, 222 
41, 807 

230, 913 
45, 884 
25, 978 
15, 195 

481, 326 

976, 641 


Pesos. 

323, 244 
13, 466 

342, 929 
95, 205 
52, 598 
79, 545 

615, 310 
1, 251, 450 


Pesos. 
379, 000 


Railway sleepers 


Timber 


270, 000 


Oranges 




Palm trees 




Tree trunks 




Tobacco 


626, 000 


Yerba mate 


1, 352, 000 







The exports of domestic products in 1901 were as follows: 



Products. 


Amount. 


Value (gold). 


Cocoanut oil 


kilos . . 


5, 274 


$527. 40 


Sugar 


do.... 


7,055 


705. 50 


Alfalfa 


do.... 


16, 370 


245. 55 


Pottery 




11 


11.00 


Bran of wheat 


kilos.. 


23, 490 


704. 70 


Bran of corn 


do.... 


3,470 


69.40 


Starch 


do.... 


13, 815 


912. 60 


Pineapples 




400 


78.00 


Sawdust 


kilos.. 


205, 400 


2, 054. 00 


Horns . 




283, 238 


2, 832. 38 
626. 00 


Cocoanuts 


kilos.. 


15, 650 


Bran of cocoanuts 


do.... 


77, 280 


1, 545. 60 


Wire 


do 


3,400 
5,703 
3,610 


374. 00 


Rum _ 


. _ liters.. 


303. 75 


Cattle 




25, 508. 00 
1, 128. 00 


Mares 


141 

9 

4,600 


Horses ^ 


72.00 


Bananas 


bunches. . 


465. 00 


Curupay bark 


kilos.. 


39, 300 


265. 00 


Orange bark 


do.... 


3,418 


85.46 


Sugar cane 


do.... 


1,480 


4.44 


India rubber 


do.... 


301 


45.15 


Salted meat 


do.... 


744, 927 


155, 155. 80 


Jars 




87 
158, 000 


27. 80 


Charcoal 


kilos.. 


790. 00 



104 



PARAGUAY. 



Products. 



Amount. 



Value (gold), 



Sieves 

Tallow .. 

Horsehair 

Beeswax 

Cigars 

Dry hides 

Salted hides. . . 

Hides (desechos) 

Hides (silvestres) 

Tiger skins 

Colt hides . 

" Cueros de nonatos " . . 

Shells 

Sweetmeats . 

Eailway sleepers 

Brooms . 

Essence 

Extract of quebracho . . . 
Tobacco-powder specific 

Vermicelli 

Leather waste 

Crackers (ordinary) .... 

Crackers ( fine) 

Grasa de vaca 

Lard 

Flour 

Medicinal leaves 

Bones 

Common yellow soap.. . 

Washed wool 

Unwashed wool 

Raw wool 

Preserved tongues 

Hard wood 

Mahogany 

Peanuts 

Corn 

"Mates" 

"Mazas" 

Molasses 

Oranges 

Mandarines 

Indian articles 

Posts for buildings 

Palm trees 

Posts _ 



kilos. 
.do... 
.do... 



kilos. 



dozen. 
..kilos. 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 
..do... 



meters. 
..do... 

..kilos. 
..do... 



.pair, 
liters. 



2 

168, 753 

89, 067 

54 

18, 200 

104, 841 

108, 501 

5,153 

27, 156 

30 

7 

100 

160 

906 

11, 898 

57 

■ 17, 834 

1, 174, 800 

2,200 

360 

3,635 

6,652 

1,750 

39, 980 

3,668 

900 

3,228 

115, 206 

25, 878 

18, 281 

3,875 

18, 648 

14, 245 

1,147,322 

216, 095 

1,829 

250, 549 

16,440 

19 

1,380 

114, 155, 820 

343, 150 



Telegraph posts 
Hoofs 



Plants 

Beans ' ' porotos ' ' . 

Posts 

Ostrich plumes. . . 

Quebracho 

Medicinal roots . . 

Firewood 

"Rodados" 

"Rollizos" 

Salt 

Seeds 

Tabaco pito 

Tabaco para 

Tabaco curubica . 

Black tobacco 

Snuff 



kilos. 



.kilos, 
.do... 
.do... 



.pair, 
kilos, 
.do... 
.do... 
.do... 
.do... 
.do... 
.do... 
.do... 



210 

20, 503 

480 

4,500 

1,999 

2,448 

4,009 

71, 285 

970 

10, 277, 406 

2,907 

55, 825 

75 

6, 908, 714 

2,500 

20 

1, 880, 306 

439, 360 

14, 890 

13, 952 

2,000 



$2.00 

17, 351. 36 

26, 720. 10 

5.40 

30.60 

262/102. 50 

385, 503. 00 

10, 306. 00 

2, 719. 60 

12.00 

4.90 

10.00 

5.20 

135. 90 

5, 949. 00 

85.50 

26,751.00 

352, 440. 00 

264. 00 

36.00 

72.70 

532. 16 

437. 50 

5, 997. 01 

1, 100. 40 

45.00 

968. 40 

345. 60 

2, 070. 24 

3, 656. 20 

387. 50 

2, 634. 18 

3, 683. 05 
222, 586. 44 

71, 817. 86 
64.22 

5, 010. 98 
411. 00 

11.40 

27.60 

114, 155. 82 

626. 80 

838. 00 

105. 00 

6, 150. 90 

4.80 

112.50 

121. 76 

612. 00 

120. 27 

2,851.40 

999. 00 

30, 832. 26 

961. 60 

522. 25 

1,875.00 

10, 363. 09 

15.00 

6.00 

93, 315. 30 

43, 936. 00 

372. 28 

2, 790. 40 

240. 00 



PARAGUAY. 



105 



Products. 


Amount. 


Value (gold). 


Boards . 




$7, 137. 19 


Tendons... - 


611 

1,372 

16, 887 

967, 256 

70 

217 

4, 486, 166 

256, 897 


12.22 


' ' Trasillos ' ' 






302. 00 


Tomatoes .. 
Rods 




baskets.. 


20, 264. 40 
19, 345. 12 


Candles . . . 
Yards 




kilos.. 


14.00 
4.34 


Yerba 

Yerba, ground 

Articles not snprifipd 


kilos.. 

do.... 


538, 339. 92 
39, 929. 86 
14, 278. 42 











During* the year 1889, Paraguay imported from Great Britain, Ger- 
many, and Italy, according to official statistics of the latter countries, 
and by principal articles, as follows: 



Articles. 


From Great 
Britain. 


From Ger- 
many. 


From Italy. 


Carriages, carts, and cars 


$4, 545 






Cotton, manufactures of 


$3, 332 
7,616 
2,142 

4,046 




Iron and steel, and manufactures of 


51, 605 




Jewelry and manufactures of gold and silver. 




Malt liquors 






Wine 




$394, 299 


Wool, manufactures of 




2,856 
23, 562 


All other articles 


12, 779 


21, 230 






Total 


68, 929 43. 654 


415, 529 









According to The Statesman's Year-Book for 1893, "the British 
trade (with Paraguay) passes almost entirely through the territories 
of Brazil and the Argentine Confederation." In 1891, as stated by 
the same publication, "the direct exports (from Paraguay) to the 
United Kingdom were nil, and the imports therefrom amounted to 
£362," or $1,810. 

The commercial relations between Paraguay and the Argentine 
Republic are in some respects extremely peculiar, and it is for this 
reason that some writers, as Consul Hill, for instance, have stated that 
Paraguay commercially is a tributary to the Argentine Republic. 
Nearly all the domestic products of Paraguay exported from its terri- 
tory leave the Paraguayan ports destined to some part of the Argen- 
tine Republic, but no more than 1 per cent (and frequently much less) 
of the total foreign commerce of the Argentine Republic goes to 
Paraguay. 

According to the Report of Consul Shaw, which has been quoted 
before, "with the exception of the importation of a little timber and 
a few agricultural implements, the trade (of Paraguay) with the United 
States does not amount to much." The prospects of building up a 
profitable commercial intercourse between the two countries are not 



106 , PARAGUAY . 

by any means to be abandoned. The subject is, as Consul Hill says, 
surrounded by difficulties of various kinds, the principal being the lack, 
at present, of direct communication by steamships, and the necessity, 
thus far experienced, of twice reshipping the goods of American 
manufacture sent to Paraguay, first at Rio Janeiro, and again at the 
mouth of the Plate. 

Consul Hill says that the trade in imported eatables, wines, liquors, 
cotton, and woolen goods, hardware, hats, shoes, drugs, lamps, fire- 
arms, house furniture, and several other articles is considerable. He 
thinks that American articles of that kind will find a market in Para- 
guay, and that this matter is "worthy of more serious attention than 
our merchants and shippers have hitherto devoted to it." He says 
further: 

There is not at this writing (January 23, 1889) one single dollar of American capi- 
tal invested in trade, or endeavor to induce trade, in Paraguay. During my stay 
here one commercial traveler from the United States has made Asuncion a flying 
visit and found no difficulty, he informs me, in securing a good bill of- orders. He 
further states that tradesmen here, unlike those in other sections of his route, have 
no prejudice against novelties or new lines of trade. "The Government is stable, 
and bent," he says, "upon the development of the country with the aid of foreign 
enterprise and capital. Its cordial support may be relied on by anyone endeavoring 
to establish trade relations. ' ' 

In Bulletin No. 41 of the Bureau of the American .Republics, entitled 
"Commercial information concerning the American Kepublics and 
Colonies," and issued in April, 1892, the following extract from a let- 
ter of Mr. William Harrison, a merchant at Villa Rica, was published: 

MARKET FOR AMERICAN GOODS. 

It is a great pity that our manufactures should be shipped first to Europe and from 
there to South America, owing to want of means for transport, and once they have 
to come through that route they are no longer considered out here as being Ameri- 
can manufactures, but as European, and the importers here send their orders for 
those articles to Europe instead of sending to the States. 

I inclose a list of articles which I have ready markets for, but they should be of 
the cheapest possible manufacture: 

Hats (felt), printed calico, white calico, bleached calico, cotton socks, cotton 
stockings, cotton undershirts, cotton white shirts, cotton cuffs and collars, mole- 
skins; sewing thread, hand and machine (spools); kerosene; sewing machines; oil- 
cloth; steel fencing wire, Nos. 8 and 9; hinges from 6 inches to 18 inches and screws 
to suit above; door locks; lamps; slips or tower bolts, 3 inches to 36 inches; thread 
for sewing bags; crockery and glassware; account paper, foolscap size; foolscap, plain, 
letter paper; axes, squaring and felling; loaf sugar; rice; cotton blankets, cotton 
rugs; aspillera (for making bags); ordinary hemp tweed (this article should weigh 
10 J ounces to a yard of 40 inches width); white and colored handkerchiefs, pocket 
and larger size, imitation of silk; white handkerchiefs, pocket (cotton); cement; 
linseed oil; turpentine; ink (writing); cutlery; cooking utensils ; agricultural imple- 
ments; furniture; nails, wrought iron and French; weighing machines or scales; 
shovels; hoes; envelopes. 



PAEAGUAY. 107 

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. 

The statement is made with satisfaction in this place that the " Centro 
Comercial del Paraguay," established in 1898, has just been turned 
(March 19, 1902) into a Chamber of Commerce, under the name of 
u Camara de Comercio de la Asuncion." 

The purposes of this important institution are, among others, the 
following: 

To address to the proper authorities such petitions as may be required in the inter- 
ests of the classes represented by it, whether suggesting new legislation or adminis- 
trative reforms to the benefit of the said classes, or giving their opinion on the 
projects or schemes of the same nature referred to it by the Government or by private 
parties. 

To promote and encourage the holding of conferences for the discussion of econom- 
ical questions in general, and more particularly of those questions which may affect 
the march of commerce and give unity to its action; and to report to the Government 
and to the private parties, if any, interested in the subject the result of its delibera- 
tions. 

To report what it may deem to be proper, when consulted by the authorities, by 
individual members of the institution, or by persons residing abroad, on matters 
within the scope of its functions. 

To study the ways and means of creating new sources of production and trade and 
endeavor to put them into practical operation. 

To promote and encourage the holding of commercial and industrial exhibitions. 

To establish and maintain friendly relations with all commercial and industrial 
institutions, both domestic and foreign, and appoint correspondents. 

To promote by all means, whether direct or indirect, commercial and industrial 
education. 

This Chamber of Commerce is composed of the most prominent mer- 
chants, manufacturers, and landowners of the Republic, and is divided 
into several standing committees, as required by the nature of the 
business to be transacted by it, as, for instance, agriculture, cattle 
industry, domestic production, transportation, banking, exportation 
and importation of merchandise, manufactures, commerce by retail, 
navigation, legislation, etc. 

A reading room and a museum of the principal products of the 
country are attached to it. In the former a good number of foreign 
newspapers and magazines can be found. The latter is a kind of per- 
manent Exposition on a small scale of the wealth of the Republic. 

A special telegraphic service keeps the members of the institution 
acquainted with the quotations and current prices of the stocks and 
bonds, etc., whether domestic or foreign, and with the price secured 
in foreign markets by Paraguayan products. 



108 



PARAGUAY. 



REMARKS ABOUT THE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. 

[From the British Consular Report for the year 1900.] 

The exports from Asuncion during the year under review may be 
estimated at £412,858, of which some of the chief items areas fol- 
lows, viz: 



Articles. 


Value. 


Shipped to— 


Hides 


£98, 476 
3,883 


Argentina and European ports. 


Do 


Uruguay. 






Total 


102, 359 








Yerba mate, or Paraguayan tea 

Do 


110,191 
1,625 


Argentina. 
Uruguay. 




Total 


111,816 








Timber 


43, 188 

8,135 
500 


Argentina and thence in part to 

Europe. 
Uruguay. 
Brazil. 


Do 


Do 






Total 


51, 823 
78, 960 




Extract of quebracho for tanning. . . 


Argentina. 




28, 209 
7,118 


Do. 


Do 


Uruguay. 






Total 


35, 327 

1,887 




Essence made from orange flowers 
and leaves. 


Principally to France via Argentina. 



It is exceedingly difficult to obtain trustworthy information as to 
the share taken by various countries in the import trade of this port 
owing to the fact that the greater part of European goods are shipped 
out of bond from Buenos Ay res to Paraguay. 

The statement may be made, however, with great confidence, that 
the value of the total imports during the year 1900 was £367,721, 
and that the approximate share borne by the United Kingdom was 
about £167,710. The principal articles imported from the United 
Kingdom and their values are as follows, viz: 

Rice, tea, preserved meats, spirits, and ginger ale £7, 312 

Ironware and tools 24, 268 

Crockery, porcelain, and glass 484 

Steel and firearms 2, 282 

Stationery 2, 828 

Mercery, etc 3, 314 

Perfumery and toilet requisites 1, 224 

Ready-made clothes 1, 291 

Hats 6, 084 

Drugs and chemicals 13, 364 

Dry goods, consisting of sacking cloth, linen cloth, cashmere, flannel, cot- 
ton stuffs, coarse cotton linen, and prints 102, 062 

Portland cement 2, 480 

Machinery (free of duty) 717 

Total 167,719 



PARAGUAY. 109 

Imports from France amounted approximately to £81,519, the 
principal articles, with their values, being as follows: 

Sugar, chocolate, sardines, etc £15, 069 

Sweet wines, etc 17, 809 

Dressed skins, watches and jewels, mercery, perfumery, ready-made clothes, 

hats, and drugs 21, 759 

Dry goods, including cashmeres, merino shawls, cotton cloth, coarse cotton, 

linen cotton, stuffs, and sundries 26, 882 

Total 81,519 

The value of the total imports from Germany may be calculated at 
£71,933, the principal items being as follows: 

Washing blue, wooden matches, paper bags, fruit and vegetable seeds, can- 
dles, and sundries £4, 330 

Beer ^ 1,386 

Wire, hardware, tools, etc ' 26, 772 

Lamps and globes ' 716 

Crockery, porcelain, etc 969 

Boots and shoes 1, 142 

Musical instruments 660 

Steel and firearms 2, 282 

Stationery 2, 828 

Mercery 6, 629 

Dry goods, cotton and linen 23, 502 

Machinery 717 

Total 71,933 

Imports from Spain, consisting of tinned and preserved goods and 
coarse salt, amounted in value to about £5,218. 

Windmills and paraffin oil were imported from the United States to 
the value of £8,318. 

Italian imports, consisting of olive oil, cigars, preserves, wine, dry 
goods, and musical instruments, were imported to the value of £21,604. 

The imports from Brazil, consisting of unmilled yerba and coffee, 
amounted to £4,942. 

The preponderating share taken by the United Kingdom will appear 
from the preceding figures, as also the place occupied by France and 
Germany, namely, of second and third in the list, respectively. 

Taking into consideration the fact that the bulk of the foreign trade 
is in the hands of Germans, and that there are at least 10 German 
houses established in Asuncion to one British firm, this result can not 
be considered other than satisfactory. Nevertheless it is evident that 
both France and Germany are now successfully competing in goods of 
which ten or fifteen years ago hardly a bale of other than British manu- 
facture was sold in the country. These articles are mainly crockery, 
porcelain, glass, steel, firearms, hats, drugs, and dry goods. 



Chapter XIV. 



FINANCIAL CONDITION. 

As stated by Consul Shaw in his Report of December 14, 1891, "the 
Paraguayan debt, both foreign and domestic, is, perhaps, proportion- 
ately the smallest of any country in the world;" but in spite of this 
most favorable circumstance the financial condition of the Republic 
has been of late subjected to considerable embarrassments depending 
principally upon the serious troubles which have afflicted the Argen- 
tine markets and the other markets on La Plata River. 

Prior to 1869 Paraguay had no debt, either foreign or domestic. In 
the struggle against Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and the Republic 
of Uruguay the resources of the Government were exhausted, and for 
the first time in the history of the country a foreign loan was nego- 
tiated in 1871. A second transaction of the same kind was consum- 
mated in the following year. These two loans, both of them negotiated 
at London, amounted to 3,000,000 pounds sterling ($15,000,000), rep- 
resented b}^ bonds bearing 8 per cent interest. 

The history of the vicissitudes through which this portion of the 
public indebtedness of Paraguay has passed is well known. Now, 
under arrangements made in December, 1885, by Seiior Don Jose 
Segundo Decoud, special Commissioner of the Paraguayan Govern- 
ment, with the Council of foreign bondholders, the whole debt was 
reduced to £850,000, represented by bonds of £100 each. 

On December 31, 1901, this debt amounted to $1,787,077.86. The 
sinking fund, J per cent, reached in 1900 the amount of $21,866.01; 
and the reduction made through purchases of bonds in London was 
$116,634. 

In the Report of the Council of foreign bondholders for the year 
1898-99, the following is stated: 

The Council are glad to report that the Government of Paraguay has continued to 
make with due regularity the requisite remittances for the payment of interest on 
the external debt. 

The export duty on yerba, which is set apart for this service, yielded 
in 1901 the sum of $47,082 in gold; and to complete the sum required 
use was made of the general revenue. 

Ill 



112 PAKAGUAY. 

The new arrangements, made in 1896, for the service of this debt 
were as follows: The interest on the 1886 bonds was to be reduced 1 
per cent per annum in 1896, 1897, and 1898; li per cent per annum 
in 1899, 1900, and 1901; 2 per cent per annum in 1902, 1903, and 1904, 
and 2i per cent per annum in 1905 and 1906. From 1907 to the 
extinction of the debt the reduction in the interest will be 3 per cent. 

A sinking fund was provided of % per cent per annum, to begin 
January 1, 1900. 

In addition to this debt, which does not cause Paraguay any prac- 
tical embarrassment at all, there are the so-called Brazilian and 
Argentine indemnities, amounting on the 31st of December, 1890, 
with accrued interest, the former to 19,876,466 and the latter to 
19,563,990. 

These Brazilian and Argentine indemnities were the result of the 
war. 

The Republic of Uruguay, by treaty of April 30, 1883, magnani- 
mously waived her claims to indemnity, and shortly afterwards re- 
turned to Paraguay the Paraguayan battle flags and trophies which 
had been taken from her during the war. 

No other foreign debts than those described are due by Paraguay. 
But there is a domestic or internal debt, represented by bonds bearing 
9 per cent per annum, which on the 31st of December, 1901, had been 
reduced to $827,300 in the paper currency of the country. For the 
service of this debt $429,444.39 were expended in the year last named. 

A fact worthy of mention is that the whole amount of paper cur- 
rency in circulation on December 31, 1901, represented $10,566,171.19, 
and that during 1901 not less than $775,154 worth of this paper was 
redeemed. 

From the report of the Council of foreign bondholders above men- 
tioned the following must be quoted: 

Land warrants. — These were issued in the proportion of 830,000 square varas — about 
145 acres — of land to each holder of £100 nominal value of unpaid coupons. 

The Paraguay Land Company was formed (1888) to deal with the land warrants 
with a capital of £250,000, in shares of £5. The Company issued two fully paid 
shares for each £100 warrant. The warrant holders provided capital in the form 
of 5 per cent debentures to the amount of £61,710. The name of the Company was 
altered in 1889 to that of Anglo-Paraguayan Land Company. It has since been 
reconstructed and the capital reduced. 



Chapter XV. 



GOVERNMENT REVENUES AND EXPENSES. 

The revenues of Paraguay are mainly derived from the following 
sources: 

(1) Customs duties levied on imports and exports. 

(2) Port dues, warehousing, and other local charges on vessels and 
merchandise. 

(3) Sales and leases of public lands. 
(1) Land taxation. 

(5) Internal revenue, in the shape of stamps, stamped paper, 
licenses, patents, etc. 

IMPORT DUTIES. 

Under the Paraguayan law of September 21, 1899, which is still in 
force, all foreign merchandise imported into Paragua}, not in the free 
list, is subject to duties ranging from 2 to 80 per cent ad valorem, the 
value to be fixed in accordance with a schedule of appraisement {tarifa 
de avaluos) framed for that purpose by a committee of merchants at 
Asuncion. The values given by this schedule form the basis upon 
which the custom-house authorities make their calculations and regu- 
late the duties to be paid in each case. Mr. Van Bruysel says that it 
is safe to state that the value of the merchandise as given in the 
schedule is always about 20 per cent less than the real actual value. 

Articles paying 2 per cent: 

Steel in bars, plates, or ingots; copper in bars, plates, or ingots; iron in bars, 
plates, or ingots; precious stones and fine pearls, loose. 

Articles paying 5 per cent: 

Jewelry of gold or silver, with or without stones or pearls; needles for sewing 
machines; scientific instruments, with or without handles ornamented with gold, 
silver, or platinum; sewing machines, shovels, picks, Portland cement; gold or silver 
watches, with or without stones or pearls; silk for sewing or embroidering, wheat, 
utensils of gold or silver. 

Articles paying 15 per cent: 

Burlaps, tin (stannum) in bars or ingots, matting, axes, iron hooks (horquillas), 
tin plate, un wrought; refractory bricks, zinc plates up to No. 4, zinc, cut and pre- 
pared to make boxes, zinc in bars or ingots, common salt. 

85a— 02 8 H3 



114 PAKAGUAY. 

Articles paying- 20 per cent: 

Bullets, shot, and ammunition for hunting purposes; smooth galvanized iron, gut- 
ters of galvanized iron, flour, hops, malt, marble (unpolished) for furniture and for 
building purposes, common gunpowder. 

Articles paying 25 per cent: 

Ordinary cap sporting guns and caps therefor; twine, cotton bed covers, printed 
cotton goods for dress or shirts, shawls or ponchos of cotton; cotton handkerchiefs, 
scarfs, and shawls; calicoes, fine powder, pita, jute or hemp for making matting; 
ordinary hats called "de petate," hats of viruta, junco, or wool, woolen caps, oil- 
cloths of all kinds, and unbleached cotton sheeting. 

Articles paying 35 per cent: 

All those which are not on the free list or are not subject to other duty. 

Articles paying 40 per cent: 

Animal, vegetable, and mineral oil, with the exception of petroleum; sacks made 
of cotton or pita; glass of all kinds; printed books with covers of tortoise shell, 
mother-of-pearl, ivory, their imitations, or with incrustations of gold, silver, or 
plated metal, or fine gilding; cloth for billiard tables, porcelain, hats of classes not 
named in this law; tissues and all articles of silk not specified in this law, pure or 
mixed with some other material; veils in general for ladies; common wines in casks, 
and felt hats. 

Articles paying 55 per cent: 

Lucern, firearms and barrels for the same, excepting the classes mentioned in this 
law; pepper (aji), crude or ground; garlic, canary seed; rice, shelled or unshelled; 
fabrics of all kinds, valises, trunks, portmanteaus, and traveling satchels; vetch and 
other dried vegetables; walking sticks' with swords; coffee, ground and in grain; 
boots and shoes in general, made up or in pieces; onions, beer, in any receptacle; 
cigars and cigarettes of all classes; skyrockets, fireworks, and bombs; tanned hides, 
skins; alcoholic beverages in any receptacles; confectionery, sweets not medicinal, 
brooms, biscuits, "farina," maize, on the cob or shelled; peanuts, butter^ lard, billiard 
tables and their accessories; saddles, saddle cloths, belts, overgirdles, and all articles 
pertaining to horses, made up or ready to be made up; furniture, complete or in 
pieces; potatoes; trimmings and cords of pure or mixed silk, with or without 
metallic thread; perfumery in general, cheese, snuff, ready-made clothing; tobacco 
in leaves or cut, black or natural; bottled wine, port, Jerez, Madeira, Muscatel, 
Nebiolo, Manzanilla, and sparkling wines; matches of all kinds, and blank books 
for commerce. 

Articles paying 70 per cent: . 
Sugar of every description. 

Articles paying 80 per cent: 

Brandy up to 70° in receptacles of all kinds, cafia in whatever manner put up, and 
playing cards. 

In addition to the above duties all foreign merchandise imported 
into the Republic has to pay a surtax of 1 per cent. (Law of November 
18, 1899.) 

The following articles are subject to specific duties: 

Bullocks, 50 cents, gold, per head; foreign yerba mate, of the rnborovire brand, 
15 cents per 10 kilograms; and foreign yerba mate, ground, 13 cents per 10 kilograms. 



PARAGUAY. 115 

The following articles are admitted free of duty : 

Telegraph wire, breeding cattle in general, plows, spades, mining drills, bicarbon- 
ate of soda (impure), tar, fire engines and accessories thereof, common empty- 
bottles holding at least half a liter, switches, iron pipes of at least 65 millimeters 
(3 inches) in diameter, neither tinned nor galvanized, for gas or water conducts, 
tubes of 35 millimeters or more in diameter, used for making beds; coal, carbon of 
calcium, barley without husks, soda ash and calcined soda, cross-ties for railroads, 
empty demijohns, staves, remedies for cattle, fruits and fresh vegetables, globes, 
hooks for wire fences, mowing scythes, immigrants' tools, furniture of little value; 
scientific instruments, with the exception of those whose heads are adorned with 
precious metals; printed books, with the exceptions indicated; locomotives, machetes, 
geographical maps, machinery, and pieces belonging thereto for agricultural and 
industrial establishments and for steamboats, materials and utensils used exclusively 
for printing and lithography, turntables, printed music, naphtha (impure) for com- 
bustion, windmills, religious objects, fresh fish; plants, or branches of the same, to 
be cultivated; gold and silver in nuggets, ingots, or dust, blasting powder, rosin for 
soap manufacturers; wheels, with or without axles, for railroads; cart wheels for 
industrial and agricultural purposes, steel and iron rails, seeds not to be used as food; 
silicate of soda, liquid or dry, for use in the arts; sulphate of copper, crude for agri- 
culture; rock salt for cattle-rearing establishments, Roman cement, tourniquets; 
fence-wire stretchers, wire fence, of iron or steel, galvanized or not galvanized, to 
No. 14, inclusive; barbed iron or steel wire for the same purpose. Also bicycles of 
all kinds, and carriages and carriage harnesses. 

EXPORT DUTIES. 

All the products and manufactures of the country will be free of 
export dut}^, except those detailed below — payable in gold: 



Gold 

Oxhides, dry or salted each. . 0.25 

Oxhides, called " desechos " do 30 

Tobacco leaf per 10 kilograms. . .05 

Yerba mate: 

Leaf do 15 

Ground do 13 

Foreign merchandise will not pay export duty. 

The payment of the duties is to be made cash, in gold or in the cur- 
rency of the country, at the official rate weekly published by the 
Treasury Department. 

Articles intended for consumption in the yerba fields introduced through the cus- 
tom-house at Villa Encarnacion are allowed a reduction of 25 per cent of the 
duties, and those introduced by the custom-house of San Jose 10 per cent; also sew- 
ing needles, hemp sandals in general, tar, sacks of crude agave, unrefined sugar in 
bags, hatchets, iron buckets, gimlets, baize, cloth "estrella" of wool or mixed, tin 
tubes (for sucking mate tea), buttons of horn, glue, paste, bone, cocoanut, wood or 
"carose" for vests, pantaloons, coats, fire pans, bramante, madapolams, cotton domes- 
tics, hooks of metal for dresses, axles for carts, small tin caldrons; cotton shirts, white 
o*' of colors, ordinary; cotton shirts called genoese, 1'or men; cotton undershirts and 
shirts, plain, called Crimean, ordinary, for men; chairas, iron nails, single or double 
barreled shotguns, chisels, iron spurs, iron stirrups, flannels, tartans or cotton 



116 PARAGUAY. 

flannel, woolen and cotton covers for beds, iron bits, printed cotton goods for dress 
or shirts called brin, oxford, drill, cambric; twine, common yellow soap, tin jars, 
coarse cloth of cotton, cotton shawls or ponchos, hunting ammunition, iron pots of 
3 feet without tops, shovels, cotton handkerchiefs, iron tailor goose, percales or 
calicoes, chintz cotton for dresses, pikes of steel and iron in general, whetting stones, 
common powder for hunting, silver plates or zinc stamps, iron brushes or curry- 
combs for horses, scales for weighing up to 34 kilograms, common salt, handsaws in 
general, trowels; hats called woolen or mixed, ordinary, for men; common wine in 
caskets. 

The customs duties collected from 1899 to 1901 are as follows: 

Gold. 

1899 - $5, 887, 634 

1900 8, 308, 376 

1901 9, 930, 348 

About $330,000 (in gold) worth of goods are yearly imported free 
from duty in Paraguay. About 48 per cent of these free articles are 
sent by Great Britain; the balance is divided between all foreign 
nations in the following order: France, Italy, Germany, Spain, the 
Argentine Republic, Uruguay, and Belgium. 

Custom-houses are established in the ports of Asuncion, Villa Con- 
cepcion, Villa del Pilar, Villa Humaita, Villa Encarnacion, San Jose-mi, 
San Pedro, Rosario, Villeta y Paso de la Patria. 

PORT DUES AND CHARGES. 

The port dues charged in Paragua} T are chiefly the following: 

Tonnage for ships from 5 to 20 tons burden, $10; from 21 to 30 
tons, $15; from 31 to 40 tons, $20; from 41 upward, at the rate of 
$0.50 per ton. 

Ships flying a foreign flag pa} r 40 per cent additional. 

Permits for the clearance of ships of 200 tons require a fee of $25, 
and $0.20 additional are paid for each ton in excess of 200. 

Eslingage, or special port dues, are charged at all the ports, on every 
article of merchandise, whether imported or exported, at the rate of 
1 cent in gold for each 10 kilograms; but the following are excepted: 

Articles which have been landed or shipped without making use of 
the docks: Animals for breeding purposes, flat stones or slabs, lime, 
sugar cane, coal, charcoal, fruits, horns, bones, bricks, lumber (beams, 
boards, etc.), steam engines, molasses, living plants, vine branches for 
planting purposes, building stones, limestone, tiles, and pottery. 

There are no pilot, anchorage, or light-house charges. 

This branch of the public revenue yielded in 1900, $470,053 in paper 
currency. 

SALES AND LEASES OF PUBLIC LANDS. 

The land law of 1885, which is given in the Appendix, imparted 
great activity to the sale and lease of public lands, and contributed 
considerably not only to the agricultural development of the country, 
but also to the increase of the national revenue. 



PARAGUAY. 117 

The whole revenue out of both sales and leases in 1891 was 
$190,328.10 and in 1892 $371,340.47. 

In subsequent }'ears, however, this revenue has decreased, owing to 
the fact that almost all the u yerbales" and public lands had been sold. 
In 1900 it only yielded $30,987.50. 

DIRECT TAXATION. 

The law establishing a direct tax in Paraguay, printed in this hand- 
book as Appendix No. 6, was passed on December 22, 1890. 

This taxation yielded $248,000 in 1900, and about the same sum 
in 1901. It is estimated that it will yield in 1902 (Report of the Bureau 
of Direct Taxation) in the neighborhood of $400,000. 

INTERNAL REVENUE. 

According to the message of Vice-President Carvallo the receipts 
from the internal revenue in 1901 were $1,220,246.97 gold. 

This revenue consists of patents, or licenses, for commercial houses, 
stamped paper, and revenue and postage stamps, and taxes on the 
transfer of property by sale or inheritance, and others of minor 
importance. 

The patents, or licenses, of commercial houses yield, on an average, 
about $12,000 a year. 

The taxes called " registration of property tax" and " recording of 
mortgages tax" yielded $15,716 in 1901. 

Ever since the 1st day of January, 1900, a revenue stamp has to be 
affixed to certain imported articles, the value of said stamp being 
determined according to a special tariff. The articles most directly 
affected by this tax are groceries and eatables, wines and liquors of all 
kinds, articles of perfumery, cigars and cigarettes, matches, stearic 
candles, stills for making "cana" (sugar-cane brand}'), etc. (Law of 
September 24, 1899.) The receipts from this tax are set apart, as 
others, to meet the expenses of public instruction. 

Telegraph and postal receipts amounted in 1901 to $181,128.85 in 
gold. 

RECAPITULATION OF GOVERNMENT RECEIPTS. 

The Government receipts in 1901 were as follows: 

Customs $9, 930, 348. 41 

Internal revenue 1, 220, 246. 97 

Post-office and telegraphs 181, 128. 85 

Registration of property 10, 736. 40 

Mortgage-recording tax 4, 980. 10 

Direct taxes 65, 306. 25 

Total 11,412, 746. 98 

The amount collected in 1900 was 9,856,063.02 

Difference in favor of 1901 1,556,683.96 



118 PARAGUAY. 

ESTIMATE OF GOVERNMENT EXPENSES. 

The estimate of Government expenses for 1902 is as follows: 

Department of the Interior $1, 846, 567. 92 

Department of Foreign Relations 93, 540. 00 

Department of the Treasury 2,469,663.24 

Department of Justice, Worship, and Public Instruction 3, 014, 640. 08 

Department of War and the Navy 645, 852. 00 

Miscellaneous expenses 947, 916. 00 

Total 9,018,179.24 

All sums above given, representing receipts and expenditures, are 
in the national currency of Paraguay. 



Chapter XVI. 



NAVIGATION AND RIVER SERVICE. 

Navigation is very active in the Paraguay River, and the spectacle 
is often seen of not less than 40 vessels anchored at Asuncion at one 
time, flying the flags of nearly every nation of Europe and America. 

The following information on this subject, furnished by Consul 
Shaw, will be found of interest: 

In 1888 no less than 1,620 steamers and 2,612 sailing vessels, with a 
total tonnage of 181,051 tons, entered the ports of Paraguay. Out of 
this number 1,642 came loaded and 2,590 in ballast. They also brought 
20,459 passengers. 

In 1890 the arrivals were: Steamers, 1,663; sailing vessels, 1,287. 
The tonnage was 176,692. The vessels loaded were 694; those in 
ballast, 1,812. Passengers carried, 12,658. 

In 1900 the arrivals in the Paraguayan ports were: Foreign steam- 
ers, 2,002; foreign sailing vessels, 994; Paraguayan steamers, 958; 
Paraguayan sailing vessels, 384. The tonnage was 535,246. Passen- 
gers, 18,193. 

The flags carried by these vessels were, according to numerical 
importance, the Paraguayan, Argentine, Brazilian, Uruguayan, Ger- 
man, and English. 

Says Consul Hill: 

The United States flag is unknown in this part of the world. During a residence 
in Asuncion of the greater part of a year I have never seen the Stars and Stripes 
npon the river save on the passenger boat which brought up the American minister 
in April last. 

The river service by steamboats is excellent. 

The steamboats of the Don Nicolas Mihanovich Company, estab- 
lished in 1896, rank first. This Company purchased the whole fleet 
of the old one called u La Platense," and owns at present 92 steamers 
and 98 sailing vessels and lighters. Out of the steamers there are 8 
magnificent in all respects, which ply between Asuncion and Buenos 
Ayres. Three others do service between Asuncion and Corumba. 
And there are 2 which navigate the Upper Parana River, leaving 
Corrientes and touching several Argentine ports until reaching Posadas, 
opposite Villa Encarnacion. 

119 



120 PAKAGUAY. 

The trip from Buenos Ayres to Asuncion takes five or six days. 
The steamers doing this service have electric light, and are elegantly 
furnished with everything required for comfort and safety. Consul 
Hill says that they are "in many respects equal to the best Missis- 
sippi River boats." 

The agency of Messrs. Vierci Brothers also carries on a similar 
service by means of 4 steamers plying between Asuncion and Coimbra. 
The North German Lloyd and the Bremen Nordeutscher Lloyd, whose 
steamers ply between Buenos Ayres and Bremen, have an agent at 
Asuncion, who is now Don Enrique Plate, Florida street, No. 74. 

The steamship agency of Messrs. Croskey & Co. has now 5 steamers 
for passengers and freight, 4 of which ply between Asuncion, Buenos 
Ayres, and Montevideo, and one between Asuncion and Villa Concepcion . 

The maritime agency of C. Sagnier & Bro. owns 16 steamers, for 
passengers and freight. Some of them ply between Asuncion and 
Buenos Ayres. Some others are engaged only in the transportation 
of oranges, and the rest ply between Corumba and the Brazilian port 
of Murtinho. 

The maritime agency of Alfredo Zuanny owns 2 steamers and 
several sailing vessels, and the agency of Oneto & Co. has 1 ship of 
each kind. 

The Brazilian Lloyd has under its charge the following ships, all of 
which carry the Brazilian flag, namely: Ladario, Diamantino, and 
JRapido, which ply between Montevideo, Corumba, and intermediate 
ports. This company is subsidized by the Government of Brazil, and 
successfully competes with the other lines. The trips of their ships 
are made monthly. 

The freight rates from Asuncion to Buenos Ayres in 1902 are $4.34 
per ton, and the passenger fares $23.91. 

In addition to the ships of these regularly organized Companies there 
are numbers of private steamers which make trips more or less regular^ 
between both ends of the line. It may be said that a steamer leaves 
one port or the other every other day. 

Consul Hill sa} r s that the question of direct communication with 
Europe has been much agitated in Paraguay during the last year. He 
says: 

It is recognized by all intelligent men that this direct communication is something 
vital to Paraguay's prosperity, and perhaps to its long-continued existence as an 
independent State. Unless this is solved favorably, Paraguay will always be depend- 
ent upon the Plata Republics, which control its only outlet, and in whose power it 
lies to hamper or to destroy her commerce by direct or indirect taxation. The cost 
of reshipment from the ocean liners to the river boats at Montevideo and Buenos 
Ayres adds much to the cost of freights and renders all imports much higher than the 
same articles landed at Rosario. 



Chapter XVII. 



RAILROAD, TELEGRAPH, TELEPHONE, AND POSTAL SERVICES. 

RAILKOADS. 

The only railway at present in operation in Paraguay is the Para- 
guayan Central. 

Capital invested up to April 30, 1899, £1,453,082. The Republic 
guarantees 6 per cent of the purchase price of the railway from 
Asuncion to Villa Rica (93 miles), and like rate on $30,000 per kilo- 
meter of construction beyond that place. Working expenses for pur- 
poses of guarantee are fixed at 65 per cent of gross receipts. 

This company was formed to acquire and work the Government 
railway from Asuncion to Villa Rica, and to extend the same from the 
latter place to Villa Encarnacion, a further length of 136 miles. The 
railway in 1892 was open to Pirapo, 50 miles beyond Villa Rica. The 
purchase price was, as far as Villa Rica, $2,100,000, half cash, half 
in 6 per cent preference shares. 

Opposite Villa Incarnacion is Posadas, the terminus of the Argentine 
Northeastern Railroad. 

Freight is now paid at the rate of $0.10 (1 cent in gold) every 10 
kilograms for 100 kilometers. 

Passengers pay per kilometer, as follows: First class, $0.96; second 
class, $0.60; third class, $0.30, all in paper currenc} 7 , or 9.6, 6, and 3 
cents in gold, respective! y. 

The number of miles of railroad in operation is as follows: First 
section, from Asuncion to Paraguari, 45 miles; second section, from 
Paraguari to Villa Rica, 48 miles, and from Villa Rica to Pirapo, 62 
miles; total, 155 miles. 

The number of passengers carried by this railroad in 1900 was 
624,741; tons of merchandise transported, 75,503; gross receipts, 
$1,568,037. 

STREET RAILWAYS. 

Consul Shaw says: 

In Jtune, 1892, work was commenced extending the main line of the tramway from 
Villa Morra, a suburb of Asuncion, to San Lorenzo, a distance of 9 miles. Mr. Ogil- 
vie, an Englishman, the owner of the line, purchased two engines from the Porter 

121 



122 PARAGUAY. 

Car Works, Pittsburg, Pa., of 13 tons each, which are now in satisfactory work- 
ing order; also six English engines and coaches. The line will be completed 
within six months, and run by steam from the railway station in Asuncion to San 
Lorenzo, a distance of 9 miles, opening up an excellent agricultural district and giv- 
ing the people of Asuncion a mode of rapid transit, which has been a long-felt want. 
From the railway station, connecting with the steam line, under the same manage- 
ment, are horse trams running in all directions along the principal streets, with a 
service second to none in South America. 

The service of street-railway lines from Asuncion to Villa Morra, 
Tacumbu, Trinidad, and San Lorenzo is now effected with the greatest 
possible regularity, and the traffic is daily increasing. 

TELEGRAPHS. 

There are two telegraphic lines which start from Asuncion, one 
southward to Paso de la Patria, and the other northward to Villa Con- 
cepcion. These are Government lines, the total length of which is 679 
kilometers 810 meters. 

A branch of the northern line joining it with Arroyos y Esteros has 
just been opened to the public. 

The Paraguayan Central Railroad has a telegraphic line of its own. 

A contract has been recently entered into between the Government 
and some private parties to run a wire from Asuncion to Curupaity, 
and from there lay a cable across the river Paraguay, so as to connect 
the Paraguayan line with that of the Argentine Republic at El Chaco. 

Telegraphic communication between Paraguay and the rest of the 
world can now be effected with regularity, and almost directly, by 
means of a cable across the Paraguay River, which connects Franca 
Nueva on the Paraguayan territory with the above-named Argentine 
line of El Chaco. 

The following telegraphic lines are either under construction or 
contemplated : 

Kilometers. 
From Villa Conception to Bahia Negra, connecting at Puerto Murtinho with the 

Brazilian line 519 

From Asuncion to Ypane (contemplated) 25 

From Y pane to Guarambare 8 

From Guarambare to Yta 6 

From Yta to Yaguaron „ . 12 

From Yaguaron to Carapeguit 24 

From Carapegua to Acahay 21 

From Acahay to Guindy 14 

From Guindy to Ybicuy 24 

From Ybicuy to Caapucii 36 

From Caapucu to Quiquio 25 

From Quiquio to Villa Florida 30 

From Villa Florida to San Miguel 16 



PARAGUAY. 123 

Kilometers. 

From San Miguel to San Juan 36 

From San Juan to Santa Maria 36 

From Santa Maria to San Ignacio : 16 

From San Ignacio to Santiago 32 

From Santiago to San Jose-mi 36 

From San Jose-mi to San Cosme 44 

From San Cosme to Villa Encarnacion 44 

From Emboscada to Arroyos y Estero ( contemplated ) 28 

From Arroyos y Esteros to Caraguatay 40 

From Emboscada to Altos 22 

From Altos to Atira 8 

From Atira to Tobati 10 

From Tobati to Barrero Grande -. 20 

From Barrero Grande to Ytacurubi 32 

From Ytacurubi to San Jose 12 

From Atira to Caacupe 13 

From Caacupe to Piribehuy 12 

From Piribehuy to Valenzuela 22 

The telegraphic movement in 1900 was as follows: 

Number. 

Telegrams received from abroad 25, 075 

Telegrams sent abroad 23, 267 

48, 342 

Telegrams received from the interior 17, 985 

Telegrams sent to the interior 17, 233 

35, 218 

Total 83, 560 

The telegraphic movement in 1901 was 97,044. 

TELEPHONES. 

Mr. Shaw says: 

And last, but not least, is the telephone system, which has proved a grand success, 
not only rendering important service to the business men, but bringing the suburban 
towns in close communication with the capital. Each person desiring a telephone 
pays a fee of $25 (paper) for placing his name on the list and $10 (paper) per month. 
At the present rate of exchange (September, 1892), with a tendency to rise, it is seen 
at a glance that the service is exceedingly cheap. 

At present the stores and commercial houses pay for the telephonic 
service at the rate of $15 per month in the paper currency of the 
country. Private residences pa} r only $12. 

The total length of the telephone line is 500 kilometers. 

The railroad has established a telephonic service of its own, connect- 
ing the different stations as far as Sapucay. The length of this line 
is 91 kilometers. 

Between Ipacaray (at the Tacuaral station) and Caacupe there is also 
a telephonic line, 20 kilometers in length, and another in Villa Concep- 
cion. 



124 PARAGUAY. 

POSTAL SERVICE. 

The postal movement in Paraguay in 1900 was as follows: 

Pieces. 

Postal matter received from abroad 371, 698 

Postal matter sent abroad. 256, 007 

627, 705 

Postal matter received from the interior . 199, 498 

Postal matter sent to the interior „ „.„ „ 902,675 

1, 102, 173 



Total... ............. 1,729,878 

i — — 

In 1901 the postal movement was 2,099,640 pieces. 




THE CATHEDRAL AT ASUNCION. 



Chapter XVIII. 



RELIGION, PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, CHARITABLE, AND OTHER 

INSTITUTIONS. 

The religion of the State is the Roman Catholic Apostolic, but the 
free exercise of all other forms of worship is allowed. 

The Paraguayan hierarchy consists of 1 Bishop, residing at Asuncion 
and 6 Curates, or pastors, in the capital, and 38 in the country parishes. 

Primary instruction for children of both sexes is compulsory since 
the 1st day of November, 1881. The Spanish language, which is the 
official language of Paraguay, is taught in all the schools. The 
Guarani language, which is generally spoken among the masses of the 
people, especially in the country, is gradually disappearing. It is now 
prohibited within the precincts of the Colleges and the Universit} T . 

The management of primary schools is intrusted to the National 
Council of Education. 

High schools and colleges depend upon another council, called Consejo 
Secundaria y Superior, consisting of seven members, whose term of 
service is four years. 

The power to appoint professors in the University and Colleges is 
vested in the President of the Republic, but the power to nominate 
them belongs to the respective Councils. 

In 1901 the schools of Paraguay were as follows: 

Normal schools 2 

High schools 15 

Primary schools 245 

Private schools 1 107 

Agricultural schools 1 

Total.. 370 

The aggregate attendance at these schools was 25,247. 

The amount appropriated for the support of the national schools 
in 1902, not including the School of Agriculture, was 11,416,000. 

The School of Agriculture and the model farm cost per year $141,000. 

There are five Colleges supported by the Government, namety, one 
at Asuncion, another at Villa Rica, and the other three at Villa Con- 
cepcion, Villa Encarnacion, and Villa del Pilar, respectively. 

125 



128 PARAGUAY. 

The National University, at Asuncion, is a first-class establishment, 
ranking as high as any other of its kind. It was founded in 1890, on 
motion and through the efforts of Don Jose Segundo Decoud, who at 
the time was a member of the Senate and introduced a bill for its crea- 
tion. The bill met with opposition, but it was finally passed. 

This University has four faculties, as follows: Law and social sci- 
ences, Medicine, Mathematics, and Notarial training. 

Acting President Carvallo, speaking of the University in his mes- 
sage of April 1, 1902, said that it is constantly improving and increas- 
ing the intellectual standard of the country, and doing thereby a great 
benefit to the social body. 

The funds appropriated to defray the expenses of the Colleges and 
high schools amount to $732,000 per year. 

The attendance at the University and national Colleges is 690. 

The library attached to the University at present consists of 2,500 
volumes. 

The most notable among the private schools are: 

The Institute Paraguayo, with 12 professors and 335 pupils. 

The Salesian College of Arts and Trades. 

The San Luis College. 

The Young Ladies' Schools, called Providencia and Maria Auxilia- 
dora, conducted by Sisters of Charity and Salesian Sisters, respect- 
ively. 

The National Library was founded in 1871 through the initiative of 
Don Jose Segundo Decoud, ex-Secretary of Public Instruction. It has 
now its own building and over 6,000 volumes. 

There are now at Asuncion a Hospital called of San Vicente, an 
Orphan Asylum, and a Home for the Poor, all supported by the Gov- 
ernment and conducted by charitable associations, formed in great 
part by the most distinguished ladies of Asuncion society. 

Other important institutions are the National Council of Hygienics, 
the National Vaccination Conservatory, and the Bacteriological Insti- 
tute inaugurated in 1900. 



Chapter XIX. 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 

CURRENT PRICES OF PRODUCTS, ETC. , PREVAILING DURING THE MONTH OF 
JANUARY, 1902, IN THE MARKETS OF ASUNCION. 



[Note.— Prices are given in paper currency except where otherwise noted. Exchange price of 

gold, 925 per cent.] 



Oil of the castor bean kilo. . $1. 20 

Oil of peanut do 2. 40 

Oil of coco do 1.00 

Native alcohol liter . _ 1.80 

Luzerne 10 kilos. . 1. 50 

Wheat bran do 1. 60 

Coco husks do .80 

Unginned cotton do 4. 00 

Ginned cotton do 13. 00 

Hulled cocoanuts do 3. 50 

Mandioca starch do 5. 00 

Horns each . . .25 

Bananas bunch . . .80 

Paving tiles, native make, first 

quality per 1000. . 150. 00 

Paving tiles, native make, sec- 
ond quality per 1000 . . 100. 00 

Stone cubic meter. . 16. 00 

Bricks per 1000. . 50. 00 

Eoofing tiles do 150.00 

Roofing tiles, small do 60. 00 

Lime 10 kilos.. 1.30 

Cana ( native liquor ) . . 10 liters . . 5. 50 

Horsehair kilo. . 3. 30 

Cedar lumber sq. meter. . . 80 

Curupay bark (for tanning), 

lOkilos 80 

Drv hides kilo.. 2.30 

Salt hides do 1. 25 

Fresh hides do 1. 00 

Otter skins do 4. 00 

Carpincho skins each . . 2. 50 

Deerskins: 

With hoofs 10 kilos . . 23. 00 

Without hoofs do 25.00 

Orange leaf essence kilo. . 18. 00 

Yerba : 

Mborovire 11J kilos.. 12.00 

Ground... kilo.. 1.40 

Extract of quebracho, per ton, 

gold 80. 00 

Hoofs 100 kilos, gold . . 2. 00 

Bones do 3. 00 



Wheat flour "00" brand, 90 

kilos $ 54. 00 

Wheat flour "0" brand, 90 kilos 46. 00 

Soap, common 10 kilos 6. 50 

Wool: 

Washed do. . . . 18. 50 

Unwashed do 6. 50 

Peanuts do 3.00 

Indian corn: 

Yellow do 2.00 

White do.... 2.00 

Hardwood timber, 10 by 10, per 

vara 3. 50 

Oranges per 10, 000 . . 20. 00 

Mandarins do 60.00 

Beans 10 kilos.. 2.50 

White heron feathers (Garza), 

per kilo $500-800. 00 

Ostrich feathers kilo. . 12. 00 

Palms each.. 4.50 

Posts do 5. 00 

Quebracho logs, .per ton, gold. . 4. 00 

Tomatoes per h bu. basket. . 10. 00 

Castor-oil nut: 

With shell ...per 10 kilos.. 1. 30 

Without shell do 2. 00 

Leaf tobacco (11^ kilos): 

Pito $4.50- 5.50 

Medium 5.00- 6.00 

Regular 5.00-6.50 

Good 6.00-7.00 

Double 6.50- 8.00 

Pinton 9.00-12.00 

Para 10.00-17.00 

Lapacho strips, Hbv 2. per 1,000. 380.00 

Curupay strips, 1 * by 2 ... do 304. 00 

Ibirapita strips: 

Long do.... 228.00 

Short do.... 133.00 

Lapacho strips, lJbyH-.do 247.00 

Window sash, lapacho.. meter.. . 27 

Joists, lapacho, 3 by 5 do 1. 30 



127 



128 



PARAGUAY. 



Rate of exchange and quotations during the first half of January, 1902. 







Argentine paper. 






Drafts in gold 






Gold— 






Gold 
coin 
in the 
mar- 
ket. 






Brazilian 
paper- 
cash. 












com- 
mer- 
cial 
cen- 
ter. 


Gold— 
cus- 
tom- 
house. 


Date. 


Cash. 


Drafts. 


On 
Buenos 
Ayres. 


On 
Monte- 
video. 


On 
Eng- 
land. 


On 

Ger- 
ma- 
ny. 


On 
France. 


Jan. 2.... 


930 


390-395 


390-395 


450-460 


925 


995-997 


935 


930 


930 


922 


925 


3.... 


930 


390-395 


390-395 


450-460 


925 


995-997 


935 


930 


930 


922 


925 


4.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995-997 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


6.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995-997 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


7.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


8.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


9.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


10.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


11.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


13.... 


930 


390 


390 


450-460 


925 


995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


14.... 


930 


395-400 


395-400 


450-460 


925 


990-995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 


15.... 


930 


395-400 


395-400 


450-460 


925 


990-995 


935 


930 


930 


925 


925 



Note.— The official value of gold on the 11th of April, 1902, for the payment of custom-house duties 
was at the rate of 1,000 per cent, 



TEXTILE PLANTS. 

[From the book of Dr. de Bourgade La Dardye on Paraguay.] 
RAMEE. 

This plant grows wild in Paraguay, reaching sometimes a height of 
4: or 5 feet in the damp soil of the virgin forest. Two varieties are 
found in the vicinity of the rivers, viz, Urtica utilis and Urtica ni-vea. 
M. Artecona, of Asuncion, who has made experiments upon this native 
plant, has found that, without any cultivation at all, eight gatherings 
may be made in the course of one year. Such a number may appear 
excessive, and it is more than likely it could never be maintained in 
the open country outside the forests. The warm, moist atmosphere of 
the underwood in South America is very different to the air of the 
cam.po; but even allowing, as M. Valenson, of Las Toscas, maintains, 
that four gatherings a year could be obtained, this would be a yield 
greater than that of any other country. As the cultivation of this 
valuable Urtica has only been tried to a limited extent, I could not 
undertake to say what would be the average yield; but I know that 
Count de Malartie, who has imported it into France, has been accus- 
tomed to grow about 5,000 plants to an acre, and that he considers 
that a plantation once formed will last more than twenty years, a few 
days' weeding at a time being all the labor that is wanted. The French 
Industrial Society buys it at the rate of 6d. per pound, a price that 
speaks for itself as to the profit that should accrue from its cultivation. 

IBYRA AND CARAGUATA. 

Growing wild, and in a profusion that assures an unbounded supply 
for a long time without any cultivation at all, these two members of 
the family of the Bromeliaceae are well worth the attention of anyone 
who might settle near Asuncion. They are both of a kindred species 



PARAGUAY. 129 

to the pineapple, bearing a wild fruit that has a flavor which is by no 
means disagreeable. Of the two, the ibyra is the more valuable; its 
flexible leaves grow in clusters and are often 12 feet in length. There 
are two varieties, one with a white ed^e, growing on the skirts of the 
forests, the other of a reddish hue, to be found in the forest itself. 
In some parts of the country the ground uislj be said to be literally 
covered with ibyra, especially around Arroyos y Esteros and Caraguata; 
in fact, the latter town has derived its name from the Bromeliaceas in 
its neighborhood. One man with a machete can cut several loads a 
day, and the plants grow up again in six months, so that two gather- 
ings may be made every year from the same spot. The fiber runs 
along the entire length of the leaf, and is altogether a unique product; 
it does not rot, and has an unexampled power of resistance. M. Vetilar, 
who has written a learned work on textile plants, makes particular 
mention of the Bromelia as eminent for strength, fineness, and dura- 
bility; and, having myself handled some hanks of it that had been 
prepared in Paris, I can give my opinion that it has a silkiness 
beyond what is found in ramie. 

M. Artecona, being much impressed with the value of the ibyra, 
has made some attempts toward adapting it to weaving purposes in 
his factory near Arroyos y Esteros. He succeeded in decorticating 
the plant in its green state by means of cylindrical rollers, but owing 
to inadequate machinery he failed to get the peeling done satisfactorily; 
consequently he has temporary abandoned the project of preparing 
skeins for weaving and has contented himself with the simpler opera- 
tion of making them fit for paper making. The paper that is produced 
from this material is at once strong and supple and of a quality supe- 
rior to that which is usually employed for bank notes. 

After lying for six hours in a vessel exposed to the action of hot 
steam, all the pulpy part disappears from the leaf, leaving only a thin 
pellicle, inside which the fibers are left in their natural position, sepa- 
rate and distinct. Before the fiber could be rendered fit for weaving 
this pellicle would have to be removed, but for paper manufacturing 
it presents no difficulty. For a time, then, it may be well to confine 
the manipulation of ibyra to the less costly and laborious process, 
which, including gathering and packing, can all be gone over in three 
days. 

What I have said will tend to call attention to the subject; but in a 
few years I should believe that ibyra will be one of the sources of 
wealth for Paraguay. Veiy much the same may be said with respect 
to caraguata, except that the fiber being coarser it is better adapted 
for ropes and twine. 

In 1887 about 50 tons of rope and string were brought into Asun- 
cion. Nothing could be more unreasonable than that there should be 
85a— 02 9 



130 PAEAGUAY. 

an import of such a kind into a country where textile materials are so 
exceptionally abundant. Unquestionably there must be a fine oppor- 
tunity for an energetic manufacturer to start a business in this line, if 
it were onlv to meet the local demand. 



The two kinds of palms that supply the most serviceable material 
for spinning are the mhocaya and the yatahy. The former (Cocos 
sclerocarpa) has leaves of a considerable length, containing a fine, 
strong fiber that in some respects resembles the caraguatd. It is 
very easily peeled, and all over the country a great variety of uses 
is found for it. The Indians apply it to many domestic purposes; 
they likewise make it into nets, which are capable of any amount of 
wear, and I have seen fabrics woven out of it that are very soft in 
texture and take an excellent dye. 

The yatahy can not be said to be so generally useful. It is used for 
making string and for hats and fans; but it is a plant that has its own 
special value, on account of a farinaceous pith that is extracted from 
the stem, and a spirit that is made from the fermented fruit. 



This is the plant that produces what is known as "vegetable silk/' 
It is closely allied to the cotton tree, inasmuch as the Borabaceae, to 
which it belongs, and the Gossypium are both genera of the Malvaceae 
tribe. As the down is very short it has not the industrial value of 
cotton, but it has a luster and flexibility which make it very similar to 
floss silk. I saw a poncho that was sent to the Paris Exhibition of 
1889, and I am sure that its softness and silken sheen could not fail 
to be admired, if only it once attracted the notice of the fashionable 
world. 

There are several varieties of Samuhu belonging to different genera 
of the nialvaceas. One of these is known in the Argentine Republic 
zspalo horracho; it has a straggling growth by which it can be distin- 
guished at a great distance along the river banks, and from which it 
derives its Brazilian name of barrigudo and its botanical definition of 
bombax ventricosa. I found one variety in the Ygatimi Valley of 
which the unripe fruit was remarkable for the great diversity of colors 
it presented. The trunk, which is straight and perfectly cylindrical, 
is sometimes 70 feet high, and is covered with long thorns. The 
Indians do not utilize the down; they use only the strong fibrous sub- 
stance that is found underneath the bark. Out of the trunk itself they 
make their light canoes. M. Luigi Balzan has described five species 
of Samuhu; but I am not aware that he mentions a kind which I met 
with on the Jejuy and Upper Parana; it is a creeper, growing to a 
great height and known among the natives as ysipo-samuhu. 



PARAGUAY. 131 

In Matto Grosso the down is much in demand for pillows and 
cushions. 

GUEMBEPI. 

Belonging to the Aroidese family (polhos pinnatifidct) , this creeper 
in certain districts is known as mbegueqi. It is most frequently 
found hanging down from the tops of the tallest trees in the forest, 
and its roots, before reaching the ground, form the inextricable tangles 
that are the most picturesque feature of the "monies virgenes." The 
filaments that are taken from the bark are of a length and dura- 
bility that are quite unrivaled; they are so black that all the ropes 
into which they are twisted have a marked character of their own. It 
was because they can be kept so long in water without rotting that 
Lopez used them for his ships. My own experience has shown me 
that in heavy work, where hemp ropes have given way, those made 
of guembepi have often been able to bear the strain. Those who are 
responsible in an} T way for the administration of naval affairs might 
do well to give their attention to a material that seems destined to be 
of such importance in the rope-making industry. 

CAAPOROPY. 

This, which is another of the urticeae family, produces a thread 
which may be woven like flax. It grows near inhabited places in the 
same way as the common nettle, and with comparatively little outlay 
might be made a source of profit. 

OTHER PLANTS. 

The banana, the pino-guazu or great wild nettle, the pyta or Ameri- 
can aloe, the cururu-iby, the chaguara, the guembe, the igan, the icipo 
curuzu-y caatpeba, the mbocaya-saite, the paragua rembiu, the yuacar- 
inina, the yatai, and the caa-pigui are plants from which textile mate- 
rial can also be obtained. 

VARIOUS RAW MATERIALS. 

Dyestuffs. — Color manufacture, both for painting and dyeing, has 
every likelihood of making its way in the markets of Asuncion. The 
mineral as well as the vegetable kingdom produces a variety of color- 
ing materials, some of which are already known and would have an 
immediate sale, while others as yet have a reputation to acquire 
bej^ond the locality in which they are found. 

Among the mineral dyes mention will only be made of ocher and 
manganese, both of which would be sure to sell in all American 
markets. The present supply is entirety furnished from Europe, 
although the Paraguayan manganese is of a specially fine quality. 



132 PARAGUAY. 

If at some future time the promising beds of porcelain clay are 
properly worked, as well as those of fuller's earth, that I have seen in 
Paraguay, there will be quite enough manganese and iron to decorate 
all the pottery that can be made; and as I have found copper ore in the 
Sierra Mbaracayu, I feel sure that salts of copper will not be wanting. 

But it is in the vegetable kingdom that nature has been most lavish 
in the supply of dyeing substances. Generation after generation, 
from the most primitive times, the knowledge of the properties of cer- 
tain plants has been handed down; from the native Indians it passed to 
their conquerors; but the secret of the preparation has been profoundly 
kept, so that it has never yet been divulged to the Old World, where, 
however, since the discover} 7 of the aniline dyes, it could not be turned 
to such good account as formerly it might have been. 

Yet, in spite of the progress that has been made of late years in the 
manufacture of colors, and notwithstanding the large variety of novel 
tints that have been introduced to the public, it is interesting to know 
what are the raw materials still existing in the new continent. It ma} 7 
be that new settlers will bring unexpected substances to light. 

At the Paris Exhibition in 1855 the Government of Paraguay, having 
sent samples of 11 dyes, received a first-class medal; and again in 1889 it 
was awarded a gold medal as the result of competition in the same class. 
And here I may insert a list of 26 of the plants that are utilized in the 
country in connection with the dyeing trade: 

Black; 8 plants, namely: 

1. Araehi-chu (Solarium nigrum) , nightshade. 

2. Coca (Erytroxylon tortuosum) . This must not be confounded with E. Coca, 

though it also contains a certain quantity of cocaine. 

3. Timbo ( Enterolobium timbowa). It is the fruit of this which yields a jet-black 

tint. 

4. Ibope, or Algarrobo (Prosopis dulcis). The bark of this, which is very full of 

tannic matter, produces, when mixed with salts of iron, a fine black dye, 
which does not injure the tissue of fabrics submitted to it. 

5. Mured (Byrsonima verbascifolia) . The coloring matter of this and the three 

following kinds is extracted from the bark. 

6. Mechoacan (Convolvulus giganteus). 

7. Urundey-mi (Astronium urundeiba). 

8. Tubicha moroti ( Cassia occidental is). 
Violet; 1 plant, viz: 

9. Yuquerl pehy. From this plant either a violet or a yellow dye may be obtained, 

according to the chemical base that is used as mordant. 
Indigo; 2 plants, viz.: 

10. Caa-hoby (Iudigofera tinctoria). This is the true indigo, the extract of which 

is as fine as any in the market. All that has ever been sent to Europe 
has been bought up at a good price; but hitherto the manipulation has 
only been carried on in the most primitive fashion by the Indians and 
half-breeds. 

11. Uruburetyma (Eupatorium indigofera). This plant, having the brilliancy of 

the true indigo, is often used to adulterate it. 



PARAGUAY. 133 

Blue; 3 plants, viz. : 

12. Caa-chira (Oldenlandia carimbosa); a very small plant, with a quadrangular 

stem, which produces a bright blue dye. According to Parodi, the same 
name is often given to one of the indigoferce. 

13. Nandy-pa ( Genipa americana) ; the fruit of which yields a most effective blue 

dye. 

14. Caa-hu-guazu (Solarium verbacifoHum) . This is used in two different ways; 

it is soaked in urine to produce a blue dye, so dark as to be almost black; 
or it is mixed with indigo to hasten fermentation. 
Green ; 1 plant, viz. : 

15. Caa-hoby (Cessus tinctoria). The green dye extracted from this is not very 

durable and is liable in course of time to change into blue. 
Yellow; 5 plants, viz.: 

16. Chilea (Baccharis ccdliprinos) . The blossom yields a tint of bright ocher. 

17. Isypo-yu — of the family of the Escitaminese. According to Parodi this plant 

contains curcumine. 

18. Mbuy-Ibotey-Sainba. The coloring matter in this is slightly resinous. 

19. Caa-pa (Madura Xanthoxy rum). 

20. Tata-y-iba (broussonetia tinctoria) . 
Red; 6 plants, viz: 

21. Taiy-Picho-y (Lapacho crespo). The coloring matter of this, which is origi- 

nally yellow, when treated with alkalis becomes first orange, then a 
bright red. 

22. Caa-Tigua (Trychilia catigua). 

23. Caa-acy (Malpighia rossa). The dye is a pale rose. 

24. Caa-canga (Galliccm cangay). This is very abundant in Paraguay; this root 

produces a very brilliant red, little inferior to madder. Du Graty says 
that the country people mix it with cochineal. 

25. Urucu (Bixa orellana). Of the various tinctorial plants of South America, 

this is one of the most common; it gives the bright vermilion with which 
the Indians paint their bodies. The quantity of tannin it contains makes 
it a good dye; its properties are slightly astringent, but the quantity that 
has to be used is so minute that no ill effects can be entailed. To some 
extent it is used in coloring wine, and it would be interesting to know 
whether it could not be adopted as a substitute for some of the materials 
now in use which are so deleterious. The urucu seeds could always be 
most easily procured, as the plant grows so abundantly. 

26. Yerba de la piedra, a Lichen (Usnea). When treated with an alkali, this 

plant yields a tine claret-colored dye, due as M. Parodi observes, to the 
development of usnic acid. 

As already stated, samples of these dyes, with specimens of home- 
dyed fabrics to which they have been applied, have been sent to 
Europe; but the process of dyeing in Paraguay is so primitive and 
unskilled that no true estimate can be formed of the effects which the 
various coloring substances are capable of producing. They ought to 
be manipulated with modern appliances and by trained work people, 
otherwise they will fail to do justice to Paraguay and to be of proper 
service to commerce. 

The cochineal might be easily acclimatized, as the nopal (Cactus 
opuntia), on which the insect mainly feeds, grows wild in great abun- 



134 PAKAGUAY. 

dance. A very insignificant outlay would suffice for this, and then the 
country would be in command of all the requirements for prosecuting 
the dyeing industry. A well-organized establishment for developing 
this design would have no lack of material and could scarcely fail of 
success. 

TIMBER TRADE. 

[From the British Consular Report for the year 1900.] 

An increase in the export of Paragua}^an timber for sleepers has 
been noticeable lately, and it is thought that Paraguayan soft woods 
will also be in demand shortly for the manufacture of paper. Of the 
60 varieties of wood in use in the country, only about 20 are exported, 
and of these the principal with their local names and prices are as fol- 
lows: 

1. Curupai. — A hard red wood, very durable and much used for 
sleepers, piles, etc. It commands a good market in the Argentine, the 
price in Asuncion being about 2s. the vara of 10 by 10 inches. 

2. Cedar. — Though inferior in grain and scent to the Cuban variety, 
large quantities of this wood are exported to the Argentine Republic 
and to Germany, the trade with the latter country having sprung into 
existence at the time of the Spanish -American war. There is a con- 
siderable demand for Paraguayan cedar in Bremen, where it is used 
for the manufacture of cigar boxes. It is, strictly speaking, more of 
a mahogany than a cedar, but has the grain and scent of the latter. 
Price 2s. per vara, 10 by 10 inches. 

3. Laurel negro {black laurel) is used for sleepers, but not being as 
durable as curupai and being inflammable, the demand is not great. 
Price Is. 6d. per post. 

I. Palo de rosa {rosewood) is similar to the English rosewood, but 
lighter in color. Properly seasoned it takes a high polish and is suit- 
able for light furniture. It also possesses medicinal qualities. Price 
uncertain. 

5. Ibird-no is a hard flexible wood for which there is a growing 
demand for carriage and shipbuilding, as it does not warp or crack. 
Importers of the United Kingdom have expressed great satisfaction 
with samples received and state that it may replace teak to a great 
extent, the grain being very close and well adapted to resist the action 
of sun and water. Its one defect is its heaviness, but in spite of this 
there is reason to believe that it will soon command an increased sale 
in Europe. Price about 2s. the vara of 10 by 10 inches. 

6. Zapacho (black and yelloiv). — There is a great demand for this 
wood in Buenos Ayres, where it is used for making rough carts and 
spans for bridges. Though sometimes used also for sleepers it is not 
well adapted for this purpose, as, unless covered over with soil, it is 
apt to take fire from the sparks from the engine. 



PARAGUAY. 135 

7. Peterihy negro is used locally for furniture making, and being 
easily worked and capable of taking a high polish should, when better 
known, command a sale in Europe. Price about 3s. the vara. 

8. Quebracho Colorado is the most important of Paraguayan woods, 
considerable quantities being exported to Germany, chiefly to Ham- 
burg, where a large amount is always kept in stock. Its principal use 
is for tanning, and the demand is increasing every year. German cap- 
ital finds a remunerative investment in this wood, and a line of steamers 
is employed solely for this trade. There is one extract factory in the 
country, but probab^ several more will be established before long. 
The price of quebracho Colorado delivered in Hamburg is about 66s. 
per ton. 

Although sleepers of quebracho Colorado wood were laid down in 
Paraguay over thirty years ago and are in many cases still in good 
condition, complaints have been made that the wood is inclined to 
crack, especially at the heart. I am informed on good authorit} T , 
however, that in order to avoid this only that part of the sleeper which 
rests on the ground should be squared, and that the top should be left 
in its natural condition with the bark on. When this is done it is 
claimed that quebracho Colorado will assert its superiority over all 
other woods for this purpose. The following diagram will perhaps 
make my meaning clear: 



According to an anatysis recently made, quebracho logs produce an 
average of 25 per cent of tanning substance and a maximum of 29 per 
cent. Paraguayan quebracho contains more tanning extract and is of 
a finer color than that found in the Argentine Republic. 

9. Urundi-mi is one of the best hard woods of the country and pos- 
sesses many of the qualities of curupai, being even more durable. 
Price about 2s. the vara of 10 by 10 inches. 

10. Tatane is a beautiful golden-colored wood resembling satinwood 
and taking a very high polish. Boxes made of it secure the contents 
thereof against insects of all kinds. This wood is of a hard close grain 
and will last for }^ears in the earth or under water. Locally it is used 
for making stems and sterns of ships. Price about 2s. Id per vara of 
10 by 10 inches. 

11. Palo santo. — Lignum- vitse. A heavy dark wood of which there 
is but a limited suppl}^. It is used in place of " bronzes" for bearings 
in engines and screw shafts. Pulley and block wheels are also made 
of it. Palo santo has the medicinal qualities of the lignum-vitse. 
Price about £6 per ton in Asuncion. Hitherto it has been chiefly 
exported to France, where it has been known to sell for £10 per ton. 



136 PARAGUAY. 

DISTANCES. 



The distance by water between the port of Asuncion and Buenos 
Ayres is 332 leagues/ as shown in the following table: 



From Asuncion to — 

Leagues. 

Villeta 7 

Villa Oliva 24 

Formosa 29 

Villa Franca 35 

Villa del Pilar 51 

Hurnaita 58 

Bocas del Rio Paraguay 66 

Corrientes 74 

Bella Vista 113 



From Asuncion to — 

Leagues. 

Goya 127 

Esquina 157 

La Paz 177 

Parana 217 

Diamante 230 

Rosario 252 

San Nicolas 267 

San Pedro 286 

Buenos Ayres 332 



The following table shows the distances between the places named, 
in leagues: 

From Asuncion to Rosario 37. 8 

From Rosario to San Pedro 10. 9 

From Rosario to San Joaquin 34. 7 

From San Joaquin to Caaguazii 14. 1 

From Villa Rica to San Estanislao j 29 

From Villa Rica to Caazapa 12 

From Villa Rica to Yuty 25 

Form Villa Rica to Encarnacion 50 

From Ibitimy to Ibicuy 10. 4 

From Ibicuy to Caapucu 7 

From Ibicuy to Acay 3.7 

From Acay to Paraguari 7 

a A league is equal to 3 miles. 



PAKAGUAY. 



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138 



PARAGUAY. 



Distances of the principal ports of Upper Paraguay from Asuncion to Corumbd (Brazil). 

[1 league=4,330 meters.] 



From Asuncion to — Leagues. 

Villa Hayes 6 

Emboseada 10 

Villa Rosario 34J 

Boca rio Yejui 44A- 

Curuzii-Chica (port and custom- 
house 50 

Villa Conception 75 

San Salvador 95 

Colonia Penal 112 

Pena Hermosa 114 

Colonia Risso 119 



From Asuncion to — Leagues. 

Puerto Casado 122 

Rio Apa 128 

Puerto Murtinho (in Brazil; 

port of entry) 140 

Olimpo (colony and fort at Par- 
aguayan Chaco) . 162 

Bahia Negra ( colony and military 
post at Paraguayan Chaco. . . . 195 

Coimbra (in Brazil; fort) 207 

Corumba (in Brazil; fort) . . 245 



Value of Foreign Coins in Paraguay. 

gold coins. 

Spanish onza $16. 30 

Colombian, Mexican, Peruvian, and Chilean onza 16. 00 

United States $20 piece 20. 40 

Peruvian 20-sols piece 20. 00 

Chilean condor 9. 25 

Brazilian 20-milreis piece 11. 20 

Spanish 100 reales doblon 5.10 

English sovereign 5. 00 

Argentino 5. 00 

French 20-franc piece 4. 00 

Austro-Hungarian 8-florin piece 4. 00 

German 20-marks piece _..... 4.90 

silver coins. 

Spanish peso duro $1. 00 

Portuguese 960-reis piece 1. 00 

Brazilian 2-milreis piece (without effigy) 1. 00 

Brazilian 2-milreis piece (with effigy ) 90 

United States silver dollar 1 . 00 

French, Belgian, and Italian 5-francs piece 1. 00 

German 5-marks piece 20 

Note.— Coins of value inferior to $0.50, except those of the Argentine Republic, are 
not allowed legal circulation in Paraguay. 

All gold and silver coins not specified in the foregoing list are accepted by mer- 
chants at rates in proportion to those above stated. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



The Fiench decimal metrical system was finally adopted for all 
kinds of transactions in the Republic on the 1st of January, 1901. 

The following- schedule showing the equivalents between the weights 
and measures of the old system and the ones of the new regime, was 
officially published on the above-named date. 



PAEAGUAY. 

Weights. 



139 



Pounds to k 


ilogranis. 


Kilograms to pound. 


Pounds to kilograms. 


Kilograms to pound. 


1 


0. 4594 


1 


2. 176 


31... 


.. 14.2414 


31... 


67.479 


2 


0. 9188 


2 


4. 353 


32... 


. . 14. 7008 


32... 


69.656 


3 


1. 3782 


3 


6. 530 


33... 


. . 15. 1602 


33... 


71.832 


4 


1. 8376 


4 


8. 707 


34... 


. . 15. 6196 


34... 


74. 009 


5 


2. 2970 


5 


10. 883 


35... 


. . 16. 0790 


35... 


76. 186 


6 


2. 7564 


6 


13. 060 


36... 


. . 16. 5384 


36... 


78. 363 


7 


3. 2158 


7 


15. 237 


37... 


. . 16. 9978 


37... 


80. 539 


8 


3. 6752 


8 


17. 414 


38... 


. . 17. 4542 


38... 


82. 716 


9 


4. 1346 


9 


19. 590 


• 39... 


.. 17.9166 


39... 


84. 893 


10 


4. 5940 


10 


21. 767 


40... 


.. IS. 3760 


40... 


87. 070 


11 


5. 0534 


11 


23. 944 


41... 


. . IS. 8354 


41... 


89. 246 


12 


5. 5128 


12 


26. 121 


42... 


.. 19.2948 


42... 


91.423 


13 


5. 9722 


13 


28. 297 


43... 


.. 19.7542 


43... 


93. 600 


14 


6. 4316 


14 


30. 474 


44... 


. . 20. 2136 


44... 


95. 777 


15 


6. 8910 


15 


32. 651 


45... 


. . 20. 6730 


45... 


97. 953 


16 


7. 3504 


16 


34. 828 


46... 


.. 21.1324 


46... 


. . 100. 130 


17 


7. 8098 


17 


37. 004 


47... 


.. 21.5918 


47... 


. . 102. 307 


18 


8. 2692 


18 


39. 181 


48... 


. . 22. 0512 


48... 


. . 104. 484 


19 


8. 7286 


19 


41. 358 


49... 


. . 22. 5106 


49... 


. . 106. 660 


20 


9. 1880 


20 


43. 535 


50... 


. . 22. 9700 


50... 


. . 108. 837 


21 


9. 6474 


21 


45. 711 


100... 


. . 45. 9400 


100... 


. . 217. 670 


22 


10. 1068 


22 


47. 888 


200... 


. . 91. 8800 


200... 


. . 435. 300 


23 


10. 5662 


23 


50.065 


300... 


.. 137.8200 


300... 


. . 653. 000 


24. 


11. 0256 


24 


52. 242 


400... 


.. 183.7600 


400... 


. . 870. 700 


25 


11. 4850 


25 


54. 418 


500... 


.. 229.7000 


500... 


.. 1,088.300 


26 


11. 9444 


26 


56. 595 


600... 


.. 275.6400 


600... 


.. 1,306.000 


27 


12. 4038 


27 


58. 772 


700... 


.. 321.5800 


700... 


.. 1,523.700 


28 


12. 8632 


28 


60. 949 


800... 


.. 367.5000 


800... 


.. 1,741.400 


29 


13. 3226 


29 


63. 125 


900... 


.. 413.4600 


900... 


.. 1,959.000 


30 


13. 7820 


30 


65. 302 


1000... 


.. 459.4000 


1000... 


.. 2,176.700 



Measures. 



Varas 


to meters. 


Meters to 


varas. 


Varas 


to meters. 


Meters to 


varas. - 


1... 


0. 866 


l...<rrr- 


1. 154 


29... 


. . . 25. 114 


29 


33. 466 


2... 


1.732 


2 


2. 308 


30... 


... 25. 980 


30 


34. 620 


3... 


2.598 


3 


3. 462 


31... 


... 26.846 


31 


35. 774 


4... 


3.464 


4 


4.616 


32... 


... 27.712 


32 


36. 928 


5... 


4.330 


5 


5.770 


33... 


... 28.578 


33 


38. 082 


6... 


5. 196 


6 


6.924 


34... 


... 29.444 


34 


39. 236 


7 ... 


6. 062 


7 


8.078 


35.. 


... 30. 310 


35 


40. 390 


8... 


6.928 


8 


9.232 


36.. 


... 31.176 


36 


41. 544 


. 9... 


7.794 


9 


10. 386 


37.. 


... 32.042 


37 


42. 698 


10... 


8. 660 


10...... 


11.540 


38.. 


... 32.908 


38 


43. 852 


11... 


9.526 


11 


12. 694 


39.. 


... 33.774 


39 


45. 006 


12... 


. . . 10. 392 


12 


13. 848 


40... 


... 34.640 


40 


46. 160 


13... 


. . . 11. 258 


13 


15. 002 


41.. 


... 35. 506 


41 


47. 314 


14... 


... 12.124 


14 


16. 156 


42... 


... 36.372 


42 


48. 468 


15... 


... 12.990 


15 


17. 310 


43... 


... 37.238 


43 


49. 622 


16... 


... 13.856 


16 


18. 464 


44... 


... 38.104 


44 


50. 776 


17... 


... 14.722 


17 


19. 618 


45... 


... 38. 970 


45 


51.930 


18... 


... 15.588 


18 


20. 772 


46... 


... 39.836 


46 


53. 084 


19... 


... 16.454 


19 


21. 926 


47... 


... 40.702 


47 


54. 238 


20... 


... 17.320 


20 


23. 080 


48... 


... 41.568 


48 


55. 392 


21... 


... 18.186 


21 


24.234 


49... 


... 42.434 


49 


56. 546 


22... 


. . . 19. 052 


22 


25. 388 


50... 


... 43.300 


50 


57. 700 


23... 


... 19.918 


23 


26. 542 


100... 


... 86. 600 


100 


115. 400 


24... 


... 20. 784 


24 


27. 696 


200... 


... 173.200 


200 


230. 800 


25... 


... 21.650 


25 


28. 850 


300... 


... 259.800 


300 


346. 200 


26... 


... 22.516 


26 


30. 004 


400... 


. . . 346. 400 


400 


461.600 


27... 


... 23.382 


27 


31. 158 


500... 


. . . 433. 000 


500 


577. 000 


28... 


... 24.248 


28 


32. 312 


1,000... 


... 866.000 


1,000 1 


, 154. 000 



140 



PAKAGUAY. 

Measures — Continued. 




Liters to cuartas. 


Cuartas to liters. 


Liters to cuartas. 


Cuartas to liters. 


1 1.686 


1 0.593 


31 52.266 


31 18. 383 


2 3.372 


2 1.186 


32 53.952 


32 18.976 


3 5.058 


3 1.779 


33 55.638 


33 19.599 


4 6.744 


4 2.372 


34 57.324 


34 20.162 


5 8.430 


5 2.965 


35 59.010 


35 20.755 


6 10.116 


6 3.558 


36 60.696 


36 21.348 


7 11.802 


7 4.151 


37 62.382 


37 21.941 


8 13.488 


8 4.744 


38 64.068 


38 22.534 


9 15.174 


9 5.337 


39 65.754 


39 23.127 


10 16.860 


10 5.930 


40 67.440 


40 23.720 


11 18.546 


11 6.523 


41 69.126 


41 24.313 


12 20.232 


12 7.116 


42 70.812 


42 24.906 


13 21.918 


13 7.709 


43 72.498 


43....^, 25.499 


14 23.604 


14 8.302 


44 74.184 


44 26.092 


15 25.290 


15 8.895 


45 75.870 


45 26.685 


16 26.976 


16 9.488 


46 77.556 


46 27.278 


17 28.662 


17 10.081 


47 79.242 


47 27.871 


18 30.348 


18 10.674 


48 80.928 


48 28.464 


19 32.034 


19 11.267 


49 82.614 


49 29.057 


20 33.720 


20 11.860 


50 84.300 


50 29.650 


21 35.406 


21 12.453 


100 168. 600 


100 59.300 


22 37.092 


22 13.046 


200 337.200 


200 118.600 


23 38.778 


23 13.639 


300 505.800 


300 177.900 


24 40.464 


24 14.232 


400 774.400 


400 237.200 


25 42.100 


25 14.825 


500 943.000 


500 296.500 


26 43.836 


26 15.418 


600 1,111.600 


600 355 800 


27 45.522 


27 16.011 


700 1,280.200 


700 415.100 


28 47.208 


28 16.604 


800 1,448.800 


800 474.400 


29 48.894 


29 17.197 


900 1,617.400 


900 533.700 


30 50.580 


30 17.790 


1,000 1,686.000 


1,000 593.000 



CHAPTER XX. 



BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES. 

The following is a list of the principal publications on Paraguay: 

PUBLICATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL CHARACTER. 

Paraguay. Bulletin No. 54 of the Bureau of the American Republics. Washing- 
ton, 1892. 

OFFICIAL PARAGUAYAN PUBLICATIONS. 

Anuario Estadfstico de la Republica del Paraguay, ano de 1887 (Statistical Year 
Book of the Republic of Paraguay, 1887). Asuncion, 1888. 

The same for 1890. Asuncion, 1891. 

Mensage del Presidente de la Republica, presentado al Congreso Legislativo de la 
Nacion (Message of the President of the Republic, submitted to the Legislative 
Congress of the Nation). Asuncion, 1901. 

Mensage del Vicepresidente de la Republica, en ejercicio del Poder Ejecutivo, al 
Congreso de la Nacion, abril de 1902 (Message of the Vice-President of the Repub- 
lic, acting as President, to the National Congress, April, 1902). 

Sobre la cantidad de leguas de terrenos piiblicos aproximadamente, la calidad de 
ellos, sus producciones, etc. Informe por orden de S. E. el Senor Presidente de 
la Republica del Paraguay (Report made by order of his Excellency the Presi- 
dent of the Republic on the approximate number of square leagues of land belong- 
ing to the State, their respective qualities, their products, etc. ). Asuncion, 1871. 

The Paraguay Monthly Review. Official publication in English and in French. 
Asuncion. 

La Revista Escolar (The School Review). A monthly official publication, organ 
of the National Council of Education. 

Notice sur la colonie " Presidente Gonzalez," dans le Departement de Caazapa (Infor- 
mation on President Gonzalez Colony, in the Department of Caazapa). Asuncion, 
1891. 

The same, translated into English. Asuncion, 1892. 

El Diario Orlcial (The Official Daily). Asunci6n. 

La Republique du Paraguay (The Republic of Paraguay) , par M. A. Cirado. Bor- 
deaux, 1889. 

Revista de Agronomia (Agronomic Review), por Moises S. Bertoni. (A monthly pub- 
lication. ) Asuncion. 

Anales de la Universidad Nacional (Annals of the National University). (A quar- 
terly publication. ) Asuncion, 1902. 

Registro Orlcial de la Republica del Paraguay (Official Register of the Republic of 
Paraguay). 1869-1900. 

La Republique du Paraguay (The Republic of Paraguay). (A publication made for 
the International Exhibition at Brussels, 1897, with a map of the Republic. ) Bru- 
xelles, 1897. 

141 



142 PARAGUAY. 

Informe del Comisionado especial, Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores, Senor Don 
Jose Segundo Decoud, al Gobierno de la Eepiiblica del Paraguay, sobre su mision 
a Londres para el arreglo de la deuda externa procedente de los emprestitos de 
1871 y 1872 (Report of Don Jose Segundo Decoud, Secretary of Foreign Relations 
and Special Commissioner of the Paraguayan Government giving an account 
of his mission to London for the arrangement of the foreign debt proceeding from 
the loans of 1871 and 1872.) Asuncion, 1886. 

Leyes y decretos de aduanas de la Republica del Paraguay (Customs laws and 
regulations of the Republic of Paraguay). Asuncion, 1898. 

UNITED STATES OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

(1) Report on Paraguay, its commercial, industrial, and political condition, by E. L. 
Baker, Consul of the United States at Buenos Ayres. December 15, 1883. (U. S. 
Consular Reports. No. 39, March, 1884. ) 

(2) Report on the Yerba Mate or Paraguayan tea, by E. L. Baker, Consul of the 
United States at Buenos Ayres, November 30, 1882. (Consular Reports. No. 28, 
February, 1883. ) 

(3) Report on "the history, geography, resources, people, products, government, 
commerce, etc., of Paraguay," by Frank D. Hill, Consul of the United States at 
Asuncion. January 23, 1889. (Consular Reports. No. 104, April, 1889.) 

(4) Report on Paraguay, its situation, resources, products, government, people, com- 
merce, etc., by Edmund Shaw, Consul of the United States at Asuncion. Decem- 
ber 14, 1891. (Consular Reports. No. 138, March, 1892.) 

(5) Commercial Relations of the United States. 1900. Vol. I, p. 849. 

(6) Report on the Agriculture of South America. (United States Department of 
Agriculture. ) 1892. See Paraguay, p. 137. 

BRITISH OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Paraguay. Report for the year 1891 on the finances and general state of the Repub- 
lic of Paraguay. (Diplomatic and Consular reports on trade and finance. No. 1006, 

April, 1892. ) 
Paraguay. Report for the year 1893 on the finances and general state of the Republic 

of Paraguay. (No. 1357, May, 1894.) 
Paraguay. Report on the "New Australia" Colony in Paraguay. (No. 1357, May, 

1895. ) 
Paraguay. Trade of Paraguay for the year 1897. (Foreign Office Report. No. 2121, 

June, 1898.) 
Paraguay. Trade of Paraguay for the year 1898. ( Foreign Office Report. No. 2275, 

May, 1899. ) 
Paraguay. Paraguay Central Railway Company, Limited. (Report. December 19, 

1898. ) 
Paraguay. Trade of Paraguay for the year 1899. (Foreign Office Report. No. 2426, 

May, 1900.) 
Paraguay. Trade of Paraguay for the year 1900. (Foreign Office Report. No. 2610, 

May, 1901. ) 
Report of the Council of the corporation of foreign bondholders for 1900-1901. 

London, 1901. 

FRENCH OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Paraguay. Commerce d'exportation et d'importation du Paraguay en 1892. (Com- 
merce with Paraguay: Imports and exports, in 1892.) Rapports commerciaux. 
No. 124. Paris. 



PARAGUAY. 143 

GERMAN OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Report on Paraguay in Deutsches Handels-Archiv. December, 1891. Berlin. 

NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Le Paraguay, par le docteur E. de Bourgade La Dardye. Paris, 1889. 

Paraguay; the land and the people, natural wealth and commercial capabilities, by 
Dr. E. de Bourgade La Dardye. English edition edited by E. S. Ravenstein, 
F. R. S. S. London, 1892. 

La Republique du Paraguay (The Republic of Paraguay ), par Ernest Van Bruyssel. 
Bruxelles, 1893. 

Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay; guida per 1' emigrazione (Argentine, Uruguay, Para- 
guay; guide to emigration), per Giuliano Corniani. Milano. 

Re vista del Paraguay. Ciencias, literatura y artes. Director propietario, Enrique 
D. Parodi. Periodico mensual (Paraguayan Review. Sciences, literature, and 
arts. Editor and proprietor, Enrique D. Parodi. Monthly publication). Buenos 
Ayres, 1891. 

The history of Paraguay, with notes of personal observation, and reminiscences of 
diplomacy under difficulties, by Charles A. Washburn. New York, 1871. 

Azara (Felix de). Voyages dans l'Amerique Meridionale (Voyages in South 
America). 

Demersay. Histoire physique, economique et politique du Paraguay, et des etablis- 
sements des Jesuites (Physical, economical, and political history of Paraguay, and 
of the Jesuit establishments). Paris, 1865. 

Du Graty (Alfred). La Republique du Paraguay (The Republic of Paraguay). 
Bruxelles, 1865. 

Forster (Bernhard). Einiges iiber Paraguay (Some points on Paraguay). In 
Deutsche Kolonial-Zeitung, November, 1887. 

Johnston (K. ). Paraguay. In Geographical Magazine, July, 1875. London, 1875. 

Kennedy (A. J.). La Plata, Brazil, and Paraguay during the war. London, 1869. 

Lambel. Le Paraguay. Tours, 1878. 

Mansfield (Charles). Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plata. London, 1866. 

Masterman (G. F.). Seven eventful years in Paraguay. London, 1869. 

Mulhall (M. G. and E. T. ). Handbook to the River Plata Republics, etc., and the 
Republics of Paraguay and Uruguay. London, 1885. 

Page (Commander Thomas G. ). La Plata, the Argentine Confederation, and Para- 
guay. Narrative of the exploration of the tributaries of the river La Plata and 
adjacent countries during the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856, under the orders of 
the United States Government. New York, 1867. 

Thompson (George). The Paraguayan war. London, 1869. 

Toeppen (Dr. Hugo). Hundert Tage in Paraguay (A hundred days in Paraguay). 
Hamburg, 1885. 

Tschudi (Joh. Jak. von). Reisen durch Sudamerika (Travels through South 
America). Leipzig, 1866. 

La Republique du Paraguay (The Republic of Paraguay), par Braine-le-Conte. Bor- 
deaux, 1893. 

Guide de 1' emigrant au Paraguay (Immigrant's guide to Paraguay), par M. A. Criado. 
Asuncion, 1889. , 

Guerra do Paraguay (The war in Paraguay), por E. C. Jourdan. Rio de Janeiro, 
1890. 

Paraguay, por Ramon de Olascoaga. Asuncion, 1896. 

La Republica del Paraguay (The Republic of Paraguay), por Carlos R. Santos. Asun- 
cion, 1897. 



144 PARAGUAY. 

Geografia de la Republica del Paraguay (Geography of the Republic; of Paraguay) , por 

Hector F. Decoud. Asuncion, 1900. 
Aves nuevas del Paraguay (New birds of Paraguay), por A. AVinkelreid Bertoni. 

Asuncion, 1901. 
Memorias de la guerra del Paraguay (Reminiscences of the Paraguayan war), por 

Juan C. Centurion. Buenos Aires, 1894. 
La Atlantida (The Atlantis), por Diogenes Decoud. Paris, 1885. 
El comercio paraguayo (Paraguayan commerce), por F. S. Pastor y L. B. Yubero. 

Asuncion, 1899. 
Boletin Quincenal del Centro Comercial del Paraguay (Semimonthly Bulletin of the 

Commercial Center of Paraguay), edited by Don Narciso M. Acuna. Asuncion, 

1901-1902. 
Cuestiones politicas y economicas (Political and economical questions), por Jose 

Segundo Decoud. Asuncion, 1877. 
Recuerdos historicos (Historical reminiscences), by Jose Segundo Decoud. Asun- 
cion, 1894. 
Actas de la Convention National Constituyente de la Republica del Paraguay, el ano 

de 1870 (Proceedings of the National Constituent Convention of the Republic of 

Paraguay in the year 1870). Asuncion, 1897. 
El Paraguay. Estudio comparativo de su poblacion (Paraguay. A comparative 

study of its population), por Manuel Benitez. Asuncion, 1901. 
La education (Education), por Jose Segundo Decoud. Asuncion, 1900. 
Coleccion legislativa de la Republica del Paraguay (Collection of the laws of the 

Republic of Paraguay), por Fernando Viera. Asuncion, 1896. 
Cenni commerciali, storici e geogranci sul Paraguay (Commercial, historical, and 

geographical notes on Paraguay), per Rafael Costaguta. Genova, 1901. 
Paraguay, by William Mill Butler. Philadelphia, 1901. 
Memorias del Centro Comercial del Paraguay (Transactions of the Commercial Center 

of Paraguay). 1901 and 1902. Asuncion. 
El Paraguay, por Rey de Castro. Buenos Aires, 1901. 
Republica del Paraguay; apuntes geograficos e historicos (Republic of Paraguay; 

geographical and historical notes), por Benjamin Aceval. Asuncion, 1893. 
Yiaggi d' un artista nell' America Meridionale. I Caduvei (Mbayd 6 Guaycuris) 

(Travels of an artist in South America. The Caduvei (Mbayii or Guaycuris), per 

Guido Boggiani. Roma, 1895. I Ciamacoco (The Ciamacocos), per Guido Bog- 

giani. Roma, 1894. 
Los terrenos y lotes del Chaco Paraguayo y sus delineaciones (The tracts and 

parcels of land on the Paraguayan Chaco and their dividing lines), por Pedro 

A. Freund. Buenos Aires, 1898. 
South America, by Gallonga. London, 1881. 



Appendix No. 1. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. 

We, the representatives of the Paraguayan Nation, assembled by the free and 
spontaneous will of the Paraguayan people in national constitutional convention for 
the purpose of establishing justice, securing domestic peace, providing for common 
defense, promoting the general welfare, and causing the benefits of liberty to be 
lasting for ourselves, our descendants, and in general all men inhabiting the Para- 
guayan soil, after having invoked Almighty God, the Supreme Legislator of the 
Universe, do hereby order, decree, and establish this Constitution of the Republic of 
Paraguay. 

Part First. 

Chapter 1.— General Declarations. 

Article 1. Paraguay is and shall be forever free and independent; constitutes 
itself in a Republic one and indivisible; and adopts for its government the demo- 
cratic representative form. 

Art. 2. The sovereignty is vested essentially in the nation, and the nation delegates 
it to the authorities established by the present Constitution. 

Art. 3. The religion of the State is the Roman Catholic Apostolic; but Congress, 
however, shall not have power to forbid the exercise of any other religion within 
the territory of the Republic. The chief prelate of the Paraguayan church shall 
be a Paraguayan. 

Art. 4. The Government shall meet the expenses of the nation out of the funds of 
the national treasury, formed by the collection of duties on exports and imports, the 
sale or lease of public lands, the proceeds of the postal and railroad services, the 
loans and operations of credit which may be contracted or made, and the taxes of 
all kinds which Congress may levy by special laws. 

Art. 5. The circulation in the interior of the Republic of effects, the product or 
manufacture of the nation, shall be free from duty. The same freedom shall be 
enjoyed by articles introduced from abroad, intended for purposes of education, pub- 
lic instruction, and agriculture, and also steam engines, and presses and material for 
printing. 

Art. 6. The Government shall promote American and European immigration, and 
shall not have power to restrict, limit, or burden with charges of any kind the admis- 
sion into the Paraguayan territory of foreigners coming into it with the intention of 
promoting industrial enterprises, cultivating the soil, or teaching sciences or arts. 

Art. 7. The navigation of the interior rivers of the nation is free to all flags; but 
the rules and regulations which Congress may enact for the proper use of this free- 
dom shall be observed. 

Art. 8. Primary instruction is compulsory, and the Government shall give to it 
pn I on. A report on this subject shall be made to Congress every year 

by he educational department of the Government, and Congress shall 

att recommendations made in that document and promote by all pos- 

sit instruction of the citizens. 

2 10 145 



146 PAEAGUAY. 

Art. 9. In case of internal disturbance, or foreign attack, of sufficient gravity as to 
endanger the observance of the Constitution and the exercise of the power and duties 
vested in the authorities created by it, a part or the whole of the Paraguayan terri- 
tory may be declared, for a limited time, to be in a state of siege. During such time 
the power of the President of the Republic shall not go beyond arresting the sus- 
pected persons, or causing them to move from one place of the Republic to another, 
if they do not prefer to leave the country. 

Art. 10. Congress shall promote the proper reform of the laws hitherto in force. 

Art. 11. The rights of trial by jury in criminal cases shall be guaranteed to all and 
shall be forever inviolable. 

Art. 12. It shall be the duty of the Government to affirm, by means of treaties 
concluded in conformity with the principles of public law established in this Con- 
stitution, the relations of peace and commerce with foreign nations. 

Art. 13. Congress shall not have power to grant the Executive extraordinary 
powers, or vest in it the whole of the public authority, nor shall it give the same any 
authority or supremacy which may cause the lives, the honor, or the property of 
the inhabitants of the Republic to be at the mercy of the Government, or of some 
individual persons. Dictatorship shall be unlawful and inadmissible in the Repub- 
lic of Paraguay, and anyone who may propose to establish it or consents or subscribes 
to its establishment, shall be held to be an infamous traitor to the country, and liable 
therefor to the proper penalties and responsibility. 

Art. 14. All authorities, employees, and functionaries of the Republic are per- 
sonally responsible for the faults and offenses committed by them in the exercise 
of their functions. All their acts shall be in strict conformity with the law; and in 
no case shall they exercise authority beyond their own jurisdiction. 

Art. 15. The principles, guaranties, and rights recognized by the present Consti- 
tution can not be abridged or modified by any laws purporting to carry them into 
effect. 

Art. 16. The present Constitution, the laws enacted by Congress in pursuance 
thereof, and the treaties concluded with foreign countries, shall be the supreme 
law of the nation. 

Art. 17. The authorities called upon to exercise the legislative, executive, and 
judicial powers shall reside in Asuncion, the capital of the Republic of Paraguay. 

Chapter II. — Rights and Guaranties. 

Art. 18. All the inhabitants of the Republic shall enjoy, subject to proper regula- 
tions, the following rights, namely: The right to navigate, and engage in commercial 
business, to work and exercise all kinds of lawful industries, to meet peaceably, to 
petition the authorities, to enter the Paraguayan territory, remain in it, travel through 
it, or leave it, without a passport, to publish their ideas through the press without 
being subject to previous censorship, to use and dispose of their property, to associate 
with each other for useful purposes, to profess freely their own religion, to teach, 
and to learn. 

Art. 19. Property is inviolable, and no inhabitant of the Republic shall be de- 
prived of his property unless it is by judicial sentence founded on law. Condem- 
nation for public use has to be made under provision and by process of law, and 
upon previous indemnification. Congress alone shall have the power to impose the 
taxes spoken of in article 4; and no tax shall be levied by any other authority or per- 
son, unless under special authority from the same Congress. No personal service 
shall be demanded which is not established by law, or by judicial sentence founded 
on law. Authors or inventors are the exclusive owners of their works, inventions, 
or discoveries, during the time fixed by law. Confiscation of property is forever 
stricken out from the Paraguayan penal code. The penalty of death for political 



PARAGUAY. 147 

offenses is also abolished. No armed body shall make requisitions, or aok for assist- 
ance of any kind, without making the proper remuneration. 

Art. 20. No inhabitant of the Republic shall be punished without trial and con- 
viction, founded on law anterior in date to the offense, or by special commissions, 
unless it is in conformity with the provisions of article 11. No one shall be com- 
pelled to testify against himself, or be arrested unless by written order of a compe- 
tent authority, or detained for more than twenty-four hours without being given 
information of the charges preferred against him. The detention shall always be 
either in the house of the accused or in the public establishment set apart for this 
purpose. The law presumes innocent all those not yet adjudged either guilty, or 
lawfully suspected of being guilty, under a ruling of the court giving the grounds of 
the adjudication. 

Art. 21. The defense in court of the person and rights of a party is inviolable. 
Domicil as well as correspondence and private papers are also inviolable; but a law 
may provide in which cases and on what grounds an order can be made for the 
entering of the one and the seizing of the other. Torture of all kinds and whipping 
are abolished. The jails shall be healthy and clean, and intended for the safe- 
keeping of the prisoner, and not for vexing him. Any precautionary measure lead- 
ing to a greater inconvenience than what is required for the said safe-keeping shall 
cause their authors to incur responsibility. 

Art. 22. No excessive bail shall be demanded, nor shall excessive fines be imposed. 

Art. 23. The judgment of private acts, which in no way transgress public order or 
morals or wrong third parties, is reserved to God alone and is beyond the jurisdiction 
of the constituted authorities. No inhabitant of the Republic shall be compelled to 
do what is not ordered by law, or prevented from doing what is not forbidden by it. 

Art. 24. The liberty of the press is inviolable and no law shall be enacted to 
abridge it or restrict it in any way. The trials for offenses committed through the 
press shall only be by juries; and in the cases arising out of publications against 
public officials in censure of their official conduct, evidence of the truth of the 
imputations made shall be admitted. 

Art. 25. There are no slaves in the Republic of Paraguay. If any one should be 
found within its limits he shall become free from the moment in which the present 
Constitution goes into effect, and such indemnities as may become proper under this 
declaration shall be ordered by special law. Slaves introduced in Paraguay in what- 
ever manner shall become free from the mere fact of treading upon the Paraguayan 
soil. 

Art. 26. The Paraguayan nation does not admit prerogatives of blood or birth, 
nor does it recognize personal privileges or titles of nobility. All its inhabitants 
are equal before the law, and qualified to serve public offices of all description, if 
competent to fulfil them. Equality is the basis upon which taxation and the dis- 
tribution of public burdens are to be founded. 

Art. 27. The right of all citizens to cast a vote is inviolable. The President and 
his ministers are forbidden to interfere in any way, directly or indirectly, with the 
popular elections. Any official, whether of the city or of the rural districts, who 
on his own movement, or in obedience to superior orders, attempts to coerce, whether 
directly or indirectly, the vote of one or more citizens, shall be deemed guilty of a 
crime against the electoral liberty and punished accordingly. 

Art. 28. All persons in the Republic are empowered to arrest a wrongdoer and 
take him immediately to the nearest authority, when the said wrongdoer has been 
caught in the act. No blame, disgrace, or dishonor shall be transmitted to the 
relatives of a wrongdoer on accounnt of his acts. 

A ws and decrees at variance with the provisions of the present Con- 

stit inoperative and void. 

i Paraguayan citizens are bound to take up arms in defense of the 



148 PARAGUAY. 

country and of the present Constitution, and do military service according to the 
laws and regulations made for that purpose by Congress or by the executive power. 
Naturalized citizens are equally bound to render this service on and after the expira- 
tion of the period of three years subsequent to their naturalization. 

Art. 31. The people neither deliberate nor govern except through their represent- 
atives and the authorities created by the present Constitution. All armed forces 
or reunions of persons assuming to represent the rights of the people and petitioning 
in their name are guilty of sedition. 

Art. 32. No retroactive effect shall be given to any law. 

Art. 33. Aliens shall enjoy in the territory of the nation the same civil rights as 
belong to citizens. They can engage in industrial, commercial, or professional busi- 
ness; hold, purchase, and sell real estate; navigate the rivers; freely profess their 
religion; dispose of their property by last will and testament, as permitted by the 
law of the country, and marry under the same law. They shall not be compelled 
to become citizens of the country or to pay extraordinary forced taxes. 

Art. 34. The enumeration of rights and guaranties made in the present Constitu- 
tion and the declarations contained in the same can not be so construed as to imply 
a denial of any other rights or guaranties not enumerated, but which naturally are 
derived from the principle of the sovereignty of the people and from the democratic 
representative form of government adopted by the Republic. 

Chapter III. — Citizenship. 

Art. 35. Paraguayan citizens are: 

(1) All persons born in Paraguayan territory. 

(2) The children of Paraguayan fathers or mothers, when domiciled in Paraguay, 
by the mere fact of their domiciliation. 

(3) The children of Paraguayans born abroad, if their father is at the time in actual 
service of the Republic. Persons so born shall be Paraguayan citizens even for the 
purposes which, under the Constitution and the laws, require native citizenship. 

(4) The naturalized citizens. They shall enjoy the same political and civil rights 
as the native ones, and may fulfill every position in the Government except the 
Presidency or Vice-Presidency of the Republic or the positions of members of the 
cabinet, deputies, or senators. 

(5) The aliens upon whom Congress by special favor may grant naturalization. 
Art. 36. To obtain naturalization in Paraguay it shall be sufficient for an alien to 

have resided two consecutive years in the country and have during this period either 
owned real estate, had some capital invested in business, practiced some profession, 
or engaged in some industrial occupation or art. This period of two years may be 
shortened if the alien has married a Paraguayan woman, or proves that he has ren- 
dered services to the Republic. 

Art. 37. Congress shall have the power to declare whether those not born in 
Paraguayan territory are or are not entitled to naturalization under article 35; and 
if in the affirmative, the President of the Republic shall issue in their favor the 
proper letters of naturalization. 

Art. 38. All Paraguayan citizens not having any of the disqualifications set forth 
in the following article shall have the right to vote at the completion of the 
eighteenth year of their age. 

Art. 39. The right to vote shall be suspended: 

(1) By physical or moral inability preventing free and deliberate action. 

(2) By actual serviec as a private, corporal, or sergeant in the regular army, the 
mobilized national guard, or the navy. 

(3) By the fact of the voter being under indictment for a felonious crime. 
Art. 40. Citizenship shall be lost: 

(1) By fraudulent bankruptcy. 



PARAGUAY. 149 

(2) By accepting office, functions, distinctions, or pensions from a foreign Govern- 
ment without special permission of Congress. 

Art. 41. Those who under the provisions of the preceding article have lost their 
citizenship have the right to apply to Congress and request to be restored to it. 

Part Second. 

Chapter IV. — The Legislative Power. 

Art. 42. The Legislative Power of the Nation shall be vested in a Congress con- 
sisting of two Chambers, one of Deputies and the other of Senators. 

Chapter V. — The Chamber of Deputies. 

Art. 43. The Chamber of Deputies shall be formed by Representatives directly 
elected by the people of each electoral district by a majority of votes. 

Art. 44. The Chamber of Deputies of the First Congress shall consist of twenty- 
six Representatives, to be elected in the manner which shall be provided by law, 
two months after the formal inauguration of the first Constitutional Government. 

Art. 45. A general census shall be taken previous to the meeting of the Second 
Congress, and the number of Deputies shall then be fixed, according to its returns, 
at the rate of one Deputy for each 6,000 inhabitants, or fraction of this unit not less 
than 3,000. The census shall be taken every five years and no oftener. 

Art. 46. To be a Deputy it shall be required to be a native-born citizen over 25 
years of age. Should a Deputy be elected for more than one department, he shall 
choose the one farthest from the capital, in order to avoid delays. 

Art. 47. The Deputies shall serve for four years and can be reelected; but the 
Chamber shall be renewed by halves every two years. The members of the First 
Congress shall decide by lot who, out of their number, shall leave at the end of the 
first period. 

Art. 48. When a vacancy occurs the Government shall cause an election to be 
held, in order to fill the place. 

Art. 49. The Chamber of Deputies has the exclusive right to originate all laws 
relating to taxation and recruiting of troops. 

Art. 50. The Chamber of Deputies alone has the right to impeach before the Senate 
the President, the Vice-President, the Members of the Cabinet, the Justices of the 
Supreme Court, and the Generals of the Army and Navy for malfeasance in the 
exercise of their respective functions or for common offenses. Such a right can not 
be exercised unless the Chamber by a majority of two-thirds of its members present 
resolves that there are sufficient merits to put the offender on trial. 

Chapter VI. — The Senate. 

Art. 51. The Senate in the First Congress shall consist of thirteen Senators, to be 
elected in the same manner and at the same time as the Deputies. For the second 
period they shall be elected at the rate of one Senator for each 12,000 inhabitants or 
fraction of that unit not less than 8,000. 

Art. 52. The Senators shall serve for six years, and can be reelected. But the 
Senate shall be renewed by one-third every two years, and the names of those leav- 
ing at the end of the first and the second periods shall be decided by lot. 

Art. 53. To be a Senator it is required to be over 28 years of age and a native-born 
citizen. 

Art. 54. The Vice-President of the Republic shall be the President of the Senate; 
but he shall have no vote except in case that the Senate be equally divided. 

. Senate shall elect a President pro tempore to serve in case of absence 
o: sident, or when the latter is called to act as President of the Republic. 



150 PARAGUAY. 

Art. 56. The Senate shall have the sole power to try in public the cases of impeach- 
ment presented by the Chamber of Deputies. In such cases the Senators shall take an 
oath for that purpose. When the impeached official is the President or the Acting 
President of the Republic, the Senate shall be presided over by the Chief Justice of 
the Supreme Court. No one shall be adjudged guilty unless by a majority of two- 
thirds of the members present. 

Art. 57. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office and even disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, 
trust, or profit under the Nation; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be 
liable to indictment, trial, and punishment, according to law, before the ordinary 
tribunals. 

Art. 58. When the seat of a Senator becomes vacant the Government shall cause 
at once an election to be held for that place. 

Chapter VII. — Provisions Common to the two Chambers. 

Art. 59. Both Chambers shall meet in ordinary session every year, on the 1st of 
April, and shall continue in session until the 31st of August. (The First Congress 
shall meet three months after the inauguration of the Constitutional Government. ) 
They may also be called to convene in extraordinary session by the President of the 
Republic, or on motion of four Deputies and two Senators. They can be adjourned 
in the same way. 

Art. 60. Each Chamber shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifica- 
tions of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do 
business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day and may be authorized 
to compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penal- 
ties as each Chamber may provide. 

Art. 61. Both Chambers must begin and end their sessions simultaneously. 
Neither Chamber during the session of Congress shall, without the consent of the 
other, adjourn for more than three days. 

Art. 62. Each Chamber shall determine the rules of its proceedings, and, with 
the concurrence of two-thirds of the votes, may punish its members for disorderly 
behavior in the exercise of their functions, or remove them for physical or moral 
inability, and even expel them if the Chamber thinks they are incapable or unable 
to have a seat in it. But a majority of only one shall be sufficient to decide upon 
accepting or rejecting the resignation voluntarily made by a Deputy or Senator. 

Art. 63. No member of Congress shall be accused, judicially examined, or molested 
for opinions or speeches emitted or delivered by him in the exercise of his legislative 
functions. 

Art. 64. No Senator or Deputy shall be subject to arrest for any offense from the 
day of his election until the date on which his office ceases, unless he is caught in 
the act of committing an offense punishable with a penalty involving disgrace, in 
which case the matter will be at once reported to the respective Chamber. 

Art. 65. When an accusation is made in writing before the ordinary courts against 
any Senator or Deputy, the respective Chamber shall have the power, after examin- 
ing in public the merits of the evidence filed before it, and by the vote of two-thirds 
of its members, to suspend the accused Senator or Deputy and place him at the dis- 
posal of the court of competent jurisdiction for proper trial. 

Art. 66. Senators and Deputies shall take, upon entering on the exercise of their 
functions, an oath to fulfill them properly and to act in everything in conformity 
with the provisions of the present Constitution. 

Art. 67. Each Chamber shall have the power to summon before it the members 
of the Cabinet and ask them for such explanations and information as it may 
deem advisable. 

Art. 68. No member of the Cabinet can be a Senator or a Deputy without pre- 
viously resigning his office. 



PARAGUAY. 151 

Art. 69. No ecclesiastic can be a member of Congress. Nor can officials receiving 
salaries from the Nation be Deputies or Senators without first resigning their offices. 

Art. 70. The services of the Deputies and Senators shall be remunerated by the 
National Treasury with a salary to be fixed by law. 

Art. 71. The opening of the two Chambers shall be made by the President of the 
Republic. 

Chapter VIII. — Powers of Congress. 

Art. 72. It shall be the duty of Congress — 

1. To enact as soon as possible a law regulating the establishment of municipalities 
in the Republic. 

2. To enact also the law for the establishment of trial by jury. 

3. To legislate in regard to custom-houses and establish duties on imports, and 
exports. 

4. To levy direct taxes for a fixed period, whenever the defense, safety, and welfare 
of the State may require it. 

5. To borrow money on the credit of the nation, establish a national Bank with 
power to issue notes, and make the proper regulations for said Bank. 

6. To arrange for the payment of the national debt, whether foreign or domestic. 

7. To make every year such appropriations of money as may be required to meet 
the expenses of the National Government, and to approve or disapprove the accounts 
of their disbursement. 

8. To regulate the free navigation of the rivers, to declare which ports thereon 
shall be ports of entry, and to create or abolish custom-houses. 

9. To coin money, regulate the value of the national and foreign coins, and estab- 
lish a uniform system of weights and measures for the whole nation. 

10. To enact Civil, Commercial, and Penal Codes, general laws of bankruptcy, and 
laws to punish counterfeiting and forgery of public documents of the State. 

11. To establish post-offices and post roads in the Republic, and regulate com- 
merce by land or sea with foreign nations. 

12. To settle finally the boundaries of the Republic. 

13. To provide for the security of the frontiers, and for the preservation of peace- 
ful intercourse with the Indians, and promote the conversion of the latter to Chris- 
tianity and civilization. 

14. To provide for everything conducive to the prosperity of the country, and 
employ, above all, every possible means of securing progress and the diffusion of 
public instruction, both elementary and superior. 

15. To promote industry, immigration, construction of railroads, navigable canals 
and telegraphs, colonization of lands belonging to the State, introduction and 
establishment of new industries, importation of foreign capital, and exploration and 
use of the interior rivers. For all these purposes it shall enact protective laws, and 
grant, for limited periods, concessions and privileges or other rewards. 

16. To establish courts of justice inferior to the Supreme Court, to create and sup- 
press offices, to fix the powers and duties of the offices created, and to grant pen- 
sions, honors, and general amnesties. 

17. To accept or refuse to accept the resignation of the President or Vice-President 
of the Republic, to declare when a new election is to be held, and to make the count- 
ing of the votes. 

18. To approve or disapprove the treaties and conventions entered into with other 
nations, and to authorize the executive power to declare war or make peace. 

19. To fix the strength of the forces on land and sea which must stand whether in 

ice or war, and make regulations and ordinances for the government of 

ill forth the militia in the whole Republic, or in any part thereof, when 
r the execution of the laws of the nation, or for repressing insurrection or 



152 PARAGUAY. 

repelling invasion; and to provide for the organization, armament, and discipline of 
said militia. 

21. To permit foreign troops to enter the territory of the Eepublic, and allow the 
national forces to go out of it. 

22. To declare a state of siege in one or several places of the Republic in case of 
internal disturbance, and to approve or suspend the state of siege declared during 
the recess of Congress by the Executive Power. 

23. To exercise exclusive legislation in the whole territory of the Republic, and in 
all other places acquired by purchase or cession for the erection of fortresses, arsenals, 
storehouses, or other establishments of national utility. 

24. To enact all the laws and rules necessary for the exercise of the powers enu- 
merated in the preceding sections, and all others granted by the present Constitution 
to the Government of the Republic of Paraguay. 

25. To authorize the Executive, at the request of the same, to make military 
appointments superior in rank to that of major. 

26. To appoint a committee consisting of members of Congress to review the 
grants of military positions made by the former Governments, in order to either 
recognize or annul the concessions. 

Chapter IX. — The Making and Approving of the Laws. 

Art. 73. The laws can originate in either of the Chambers of Congress by means 
of bills introduced by any member or by the Executive Power. The laws referred 
to in article 49 are excepted from these rules. When a bill has passed the Chamber 
in which it originated it shall be sent to the other Chamber for its proper discussion, 
and if approved by the latter, it shall be forwarded to the Executive Power of the 
Republic. If it obtains the approval, it shall be promulgated as law. 

Art. 74. All acts of Congress not returned by the Executive within ten working 
days shall be deemed approved. 

Art. 75. No bill totally rejected by one of the Chambers shall be reintroduced 
during the same session. But if it is only amended by the other Chamber, it shall 
be returned to the Chamber where it originated, and if approved by it by an absolute 
majority as amended, it then shall be forwarded to the Executive of the nation. 
But if the amendments are objected to, the bill shall go back a second time to the 
Chamber which made them, and if the latter insists upon them by a~ majority of 
two-thirds of its members, the bill shall go again to the other Chamber, where it 
will be deemed approved if not rejected by two-thirds of the members present. 

Art. 76. If an act of Congress is objected to, wholly or in part, by the Executive, 
it shall be returned, with the objections thereto, to the Chamber of origin, where it 
shall be discussed again, and if passed by a majority of two-thirds it shall then go to 
the other Chamber. If the latter also approves the bill by the majority. above men- 
tioned, the bill shall become a law and will be sent to the Executive for its pro- 
mulgation as such. The vote in the two Chambers shall be in this case by ayes and 
nays, and the names of the voters as well as the explanation of the grounds on which 
the votes were founded, together with the objections made to the bill by the Execu- 
tive, shall be published immediately in the newspapers. If the Chambers differ 
as to the objections, the bill can not be introduced again during the sessions of the 
same year. 

Art. 77. The following shall be the form to be used for enacting the laws: "The 
Senate and Chamber of Deputies of the Paraguayan nation in Congress assembled, 
etc., do hereby enact as law the following." 

Chapter X. — The Permanent Committee. 

Art. 78. Congress before adjourning shall appoint by absolute majority in each 
Chamber a Permanent Committee, consisting of two senators and four deputies. 
The Chamber of Deputies shall also appoint two substitutes and the Senate one. 



PARAGUAY. 153 

Art. 79. Upon the meeting of the regular members of the Committee they shall 
elect a chairman and a vice-chairman and give notice thereof to the Executive. 

Art. 80. If it becomes necessary to call a substitute, the election shall be made 
by lot. 

Art. 81. The Permanent Committee shall be in session from the day of its organi- 
zation until the beginning of the next ordinary session of Congress. 

Art. 82. It shall be the duty of the committee to see that the Constitution and 
the laws are observed, and their failure to do so shall render it responsible before the 
Chambers. 

Art. 83. The Permanent Committee shall also receive the certificates of election of 
Deputies and Senators and cause them to be referred to the respective committees. 

Art. 84. It shall also have the same power granted to each Chamber in Article 
67 of the present Constitution. 

Art. 85. The Committee shall hold preparatory meetings to examine the certifi- 
cates of election, in order that the opening of the ordinary session of Congress may 
take effect on the day appointed by the Constitution. 

Art. 86. The Committee shall take no action without a quorum consisting of four 
of its members. The chairman shall decide when the votes are equally divided. 

Chapter XL — The Executive Power, its Nature, Duration, and Election. 

Art. 87. The executive power of the Republic shall be vested in a citizen, to be 
called President of the Republic of Paraguay. 

Art. 88. In case of sickness, absence from the capital, death, resignation, or dis- 
missal of the President, the executive power shall be exercised by the Vice-President 
of the Republic. In case of dismissal, death, resignation, or inability of the Presi- 
dent and Vice-President, Congress shall determine the public functionary who 
shall act as President until the day on which the inability ceases, or a new President 
is elected. 

Art. 89. To be President or Vice-President of the Republic it is required to be 
a native of the Republic, over 30 years of age, and to profess the Christian religion. 

Art. 90. The President and Vice-President of the Republic shall serve for four 
years and can not be reelected except after the lapse of two presidential terms. 

Art. 91. The President of the Republic shall cease to perform his official duties 
on the same day on which the four years of his term expires; and no event which 
may have interrupted this period shall be a reason to prolong it in any way what- 
ever. 

Art. 92. The President and Vice-President shall be paid out of the national treasury 
a salary which can not be changed during their term of office. Neither of them 
shall hold any other position or receive any additional pay or emoluments from the 
Republic during their term of office. 

Art. 93. On taking possession of their offices, the President and Vice-President 
shall take an oath, to be administered to them by the President of the Senate, and 
in the presence of Congress, in the following terms: "1, N. N., do solemnly swear, 
before God and my country, to fulfill faithfully and patriotically the position of 
President (or Vice-President) of the Republic of Paraguay, and to faithfully observe 
and cause others to observe the Constitution of the Paraguayan nation. If I fail to 
do so, may God and my country demand it of me." On the inauguration of the 
first constitutional President, the oath shall be administered by the Chairman of 
the Constitutional Convention. 

Art. 94. The election of the first constitutional President and Vice-President shall 
be made by the Constitutional Convention, as provided in article 127, and according 
to the methods established in article 100 of the present Constitution. Subsequent 
elections shall be made as follows: Each electoral district shall elect by a direct 
popular vote a number of electors equal to four times the number of Deputies* and 
Senators to which the district mav be entitled in Congress. These electors shall 



154 PARAGUAY. 

have the same qualifications as are required to be a Deputy, and shall be elected in 
the same manner as has been provided for the latter. 

Art. 95. Neither Deputies, the Senators, or officials receiving salaries from the 
Government are qualified to be electors. 

Art. 96. The electors shall meet at the capital of the respective departments two 
months before the expiration of the Presidential term, and shall elect a President 
and Vice-President of the Republic by signed ballots, one of which shall express the 
name of the person for whom they vote to be President, and the other the name of 
the person for whom they vote to be Vice-President. 

Art. 97. Two lists shall be made of all individuals voted for for each position, and 
of the number of votes cast for each. These lists shall be signed by the electors and 
transmitted sealed (two of them, one of each class) to the Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court and to the President of the Senate, who shall keep them unsealed and 
in deposit. The original record of the election shall be kept sealed in the office of 
the justice of the peace of the electoral district where it was held. 

Art. 98. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the two Chambers, 
open the envelopes containing said lists. Four tellers, elected by lot, shall assist the 
Secretaries in counting and announcing the number of votes obtained by each candi- 
date for President and Vice-President of the nation. Those having, in each case, 
the greatest number of votes shall be immediately proclaimed President and Vice- 
President. 

Art. 99. In order that these elections be valid it is required that at least two-thirds 
of the departments of the Republic shall have taken part therein, and the absolute 
majority of votes spoken of in the preceding article shall be understood in reference 
to these two-thirds voting and not to the whole nation. 

Art. 100. In case the vote is divided and no absolute majority can be obtained, 
Congress shall then choose one of the two persons having the greatest number of 
votes. If this first majority belongs to more than two persons, Congress shall make 
its selection out of all of them. If the first majority belongs to only one person, and 
the second to two or more, Congress shall choose from all the persons who obtained 
the first and the second majority. The selection shall be made by absolute majority 
and by ayes and noes. If it should happen that no absolute majority is obtained in 
the first ballot, a second one shall be taken, but the vote shall be confined to select 
from the persons who in the first ballot obtained the greatest number of votes. If 
the votes are equally divided, the vote shall be repeated, and if equally divided 
again, the President of the Senate shall decide. (In the first election the decisive 
vote belongs to the Chairman of the Constitutional Convention. ) The counting of 
the votes can not be made without the presence of a quorum consisting of three- 
fourths of the total number of members of Congress. 

Art. 101. The election of President and Vice-President of the nation shall be com- 
pleted in only one meeting of Congress, and the result of the election, as well as the 
electoral vote, shall be published in the newspapers. 

Chapter XII. — The Powers of the Executive. 

Art. 102. The President of the Republic shall have the following powers: 

1. He is the Chief Magistrate of the nation, and is entrusted with the management 
of the executive department of the Government in the whole country. 

2. He issues such instructions, rules, and regulations as may be necessary for the 
execution of the laws, provided that they make no change in the spirit of their 
provisions. 

3. He takes part in the framing of the laws in the manner provided by the Con- 
stitution, and approves and promulgates said laws. 

4. He appoints, with the advice of the Senate, the Justices of the Supreme Court, 
and,^vith the advice of the Supreme Court, all other officials and employees required 
for the administration of justice. 



PARAGUAY. 155 

5. He grants pardons and commutes sentences after hearing the opinions of the 
respective courts on the subject. Cases in which the Chamber of Deputies is the 
accusing party are excepted. 

6. He appoints and removes, with the advice of the Senate, all diplomatic agents, 
and appoints and removes, at his will, the members of the Cabinet, the clerks of the 
departments, the consular agents, and all other officers of the administration whose 
appointments are not otherwise regulated by the present Constitution. 

7. He exercises the right of nominating Bishops for the dioceses of the nation 
(derecho de patronato) , said nomination to be made upon presentation of three names 
by the Senate, with the advice of the Ecclesiastic Senate, or in default thereof, by 
the national clergy assembled. 

8. He grants or refuses, with the advice of Congress, the acceptance of the decrees 
of the Councils, and of the bulls, briefs, or rescripts of the Supreme Pontiff. 

9. He opens every year the sessions of Congress which shall assemble for that 
purpose in joint session in the hall of the Senate; and in that solemnity he shall sub- 
mit a Message on the state of the Eepublic, showing to what extent the promises of 
reform contained in the Constitution have been fulfilled, and making all such recom- 
mendations as he may deem necessary or advisable. 

10. He adjourns the ordinary sessions of Congress, or calls Congress to convene in 
extraordinary session, if a grave necessity of order or progress requires its reunion. 

11. He causes the revenues of the nation to be collected and orders them to be 
disbursed in conformity with the appropriation laws. 

12. He concludes and signs treaties of peace, commerce, navigation, alliance, 
limits, and neutrality, concordats, and all other conventions required for the preser- 
vation of good relations with foreign Powers, receives their ministers and admits 
their consuls. 

13. He is the Commander in Chief of all the forces of the nation. 

14. He appoints all military officers of the Republic. These appointments shall be 
made in conformity with the provisions of No. 25, Article 72, of this Constitution, 
when the position to be filled or the rank to be granted, either in the Army or in the 
Navy, is of superior class. Appointments made by him on the battlefield shall not 
require confirmation by Congress. 

15. He disposes of the military and naval forces of the nation, and attends to their 
organization and distribution as the necessities of the occasion may require. 

16. He declares war and reestablishes peace with the advice and consent of 
Congress. 

17. He declares in a state of siege one or more places of the Republic in case of 
foreign aggression; but the state of siege shall cease with the cause which produced 
it. This power, however, can not be exercised by the President whether in case of 
foreign aggression or of internal disturbances when Congress is in session, because 
such power belongs to Congress. The President exercises this power with the 
restrictions set forth in Article 9. 

18. He can ask the heads of all departments and branches of the administration, 
and through them all other employees, to furnish such information as he may 
desire, and they shall be bound to do so. 

19. He can not leave the capital without permission of Congress. If Congress is 
not in session he may leave the capital without such permission, only for grave 
reasons of public service. 

20. The President shall have power to fill, during the recess of Congress, any 
vacancies which may occur in offices requiring the advice and consent of that body; 
but those appointments shall be considered by Congress in the next session. 

Art. 103. All powers not delegated by the present Constitution to the Executive 
are understood to be denied to it, and be reserved to Congress as the representative 
of the sovereignty of the people, intrusted with the duty to remove any doubt 
w^hich may arise in regard to the equilibrium of the three high powers of the State. 



156 PARAGUAY. 

Chapter XIII. — The Members of the Cabinet. 

Art. 104. Five Ministers or Secretaries, respectively called of the Interior, of 
Foreign Relations, of the Treasury, of Justice, Worship and Public Instruction, and 
of War and the Navy, shall attend to the business of the nation, and legalize with 
their signatures the acts of the President. These acts without their signature shall 
have no efficiency. A law shall mark the respective jurisdiction of each department. 

Art. 105. Each Secretary is responsible individually for the acts which he legal- 
izes, and jointly for those he has authorized in union with his colleagues. 

Art. 106. The Secretaries can not act by themselves except in matters belonging 
to their own departments. 

Art. 107. As soon as Congress opens its sessions the Secretaries shall submit to it a 
report on the state of the business of the nation as far as their own respective depart- 
ments are concerned. 

Art. 108. The Secretaries may attend the meetings of Congress and take part in the 
debate, but they shall have no vote. 

Art. 109. They shall be paid for their services such a salary as may be established 
by law, but this salary can not be increased or decreased in favor or to the detriment 
of the present incumbent. 

Chapter XIV. — The Judiciary and its Powers. 

Art. 110. The judiciary power of the Republic shall be vested in a Supreme Court, 
consisting of three Justices, and in as many inferior courts as may be established 
by law. 

Art. 111. To be a Justice of the Supreme Court, or of any of the other courts, it is 
necessary to be a Paraguayan citizen over 25 years of age and a person of ordinary 
learning. The law shall provide the salaries to be paid them in remuneration of 
their services, and said salary can not be diminished to the injury of the present 
incumbent. 

Art. 112. All Justices and judges shall serve for four years and can be reelected. 

Art. 113. The Justices of the Supreme Court and the judges of the inferior tribu- 
nals shall be appointed by the Executive in conformity with section 4 of Article 102 
of the present Constitution. If the persons nominated by the Executive are not 
accepted by the Senate or by the Supreme Court, as the case may be, the Executive 
shall immediately nominate another person. In case of vacancy during the recess of 
Congress the Executive shall have the power to make temporary appointments, which 
shall expire at the opening of the next legislative period. 

Art. 114. The Judicial Power alone has the right to take cognizance of matters 
subject to litigation and decide them. Its authority in this respect is exclusive. In 
no case shall the President of the Republic have power to assume judicial functions, 
revive terminated cases, stop those which are pending, or interfere with their prose- 
cution in any way whatever. Any executive act of this kind shall carry with it 
incurable nullity. The Chamber of Deputies can only exercise in this respect the 
functions assigned to it by Article 50 of the present Constitution. 

Art. 115. The Supreme Court is the High Chamber of Justice of the Republic, and 
in this capacity it shall have the right to inspect and supervise the action of all infe- 
rior courts. The Justices of the Supreme Court can be challenged, and shall be held 
responsible, under the law, for offenses committed by them in the exercise of their 
functions. 

Art. 116. The Supreme Court takes cognizance of the conflicts of jurisdiction 
which may occur between the inferior courts with each other, or between the courts 
and the executive authorities. 

Art. 117. Defense is free to all before the tribunals of the Republic. 



PARAGUAY. 157 

Art. 118. All decisions, whether of the inferior courts or of the Supreme Court, 
shall be expressly founded on law, and no law shall be applicable to any case if not 
enacted previously to the date of the facts out of which the case arose. All criminal 
cases arising out of crimes or offenses which the Chamber of Deputies can not prop- 
erly prosecute shall be tried by juries as soon as this institution is established in the 
Eepublic. All the other powers of the judicial authorities shall be specified by law. 

Art. 119. Treason against the nation shall consist only in taking arms against it, 
or in joining its enemies and giving them assistance and support. Congress shall fix 
by a special law the punishment to be inflicted for this crime, but the penalty shall 
not go for any purpose beyond the person of the guilty party, nor shall the infamy 
of the convict be transmitted to his relations in any degree. 

Art. 120. The Justices of the Supreme Court shall take an oath, to be administered 
to them by the President of the Republic, to faithfully fulfill their duties and do jus- 
tice well and lawfully and in conformity with the Constitution. On all subsequent 
occasions the oath shall be administered to them by the tribunal itself. 

Art. 121. The Supreme Court shall make proper rules and regulations for its inte- 
rior government, and shall appoint and remove all its subordinate employees. 

Chapter XV. — Reform of the Constitution. 

Art. 122. No reform shall be made of the present Constitution, in whole or in part, 
during the first five years immediately following its promulgation. 

Art. 123. The necessity of the reform having been declared by Congress by a vote 
of two-thirds of the total number of its members, a call for a convention, consisting 
of citizens, equal in number to the total number of Deputies and Senators, directly 
elected by the people, shall be issued. The power of making the reform shall belong 
exclusively to this body. 

Art. 124. To be a member of this convention it' shall be necessary to be over 26 
years of age and a native citizen. Members of the Cabinet, Deputies, and Senators 
are disqualified. 

Art. 125. The convention shall have power to reform no other provisions than 
those expressly set forth by Congress in the call, except when the latter states that 
the whole Constitution is to be amended. 

Additional Provisions. 

Art. 126. The Executive Mansion can not be used as the private residence of the 
President or of any other public functionary. 

Art. 127. After the approval and promulgation of this Constitution, the present 
Convention shall resolve itself into an electoral college, in order to elect the first 
constitutional President. 

Art. 128. The present Convention shall become a Legislative Congress as soon as 
the Constitutional Government is inaugurated. It shall remain in session in this 
capacity for fifteen days, at the expiration of which it shall adjourn, leaving a 
permanent Committee with such faculties as may be given to it. 

Art. 129. The Convention shall appoint the day on which the Provisional Govern- 
ment shall cause this Constitution to be sworn to. 

Given at the hall of sessions of the Constitutional Convention in the city of Asun- 
cion, on the 24th day of November, in the year of our Lord 1870. 



Appendix No. 2. 



PRESIDENT HAYES' AWARD. 
Rutherford B. Hayes, 

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

To all whom these presents may concern, greeting: 

Whereas, pursuant to the fourth article of the treaty of limits between the Argen- 
tine Republic and the Republic of Paraguay, of the 3rd of February, one thousand 
eight hundred and seventy-six, it was stipulated that ownership in or right to the 
territory between the river Verde, and the principal arm of the Pilcomayo River, 
including the city of Villa Occidental, should be submitted to the definite decision of 
an arbitration; 

And whereas, by the fifth article of the same instrument, the two high contracting 
parties agreed to elect the President of the United States of America as umpire to 
decide as to the right to possess the said above-described territory; 

And whereas, the high contracting parties have within the stipulated time pre- 
sented their invitation to the proposed umpire, which was accepted by him, and 
have also duly presented their respective memoirs, and the documents, titles, maps, 
quotations, references, and all the antecedents which they judge favorable to their 
rights, as provided in the sixth and eighth articles of said treaty: 

Now, therefore, be it known, that I, Rutherford B. Hayes, President of the United 
States of America, having duly considered the said statements and the said exhibits, 
do hereby determine that the said Republic of Paraguay is legally and justly entitled 
to the said territory between the Pilcomayo and the Verde rivers, and to the Villa 
Occidental situated therein, and I, therefore, do hereby award to the said Republic 
of Paraguay, the territory on the western bank of the river of that name between 
the Rio Verde and the main branch of the Pilcomayo, including Villa Occidental. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the 
United States to be affixed. 

Done in triplicate in the city of Washington the twelfth day of November, in the. 
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-eight, and of the Inde- 
pendence of the United States of America the one hundred and third. 

[seal.] R. B. Hayes. 

By the President: 

Wm. M. Evarts, 

Secretary of State. 

158 



Appendix No. 3. 



INFORMATION ON THE COLONIA NACIONAL, FORMERLY PRESI- 
DENT GONZALEZ COLONY. 

The Government of Paraguay being anxious to satisfy numerous requests for con- 
cessions of lands founded a new colony in the department of Caazapa. 

This colony, which covers an area of 12 square leagues, is crossed by the railroad 
from Asuncion to Villa Encarnacion. 

It has been divided into blocks of 8 squares frontage by 8 squares deep, with a 
road on each of its four sides. Each block has been subdivided into 4 lots equal to 
16 superficial squares (12 hectares). 

The ground, consisting of a series of small hills, is traversed by brooks which 
never dry up, and is covered with virgin groves that contain timber of the finest 
quality found in the country. 

The timber extracted from these groves can be easily transported, on account of 
the proximity of the railway, and will repay the colonists the expense of cutting. 
It can be used not only for construction and furniture, but also for firewood and 
charcoal, which is easily sold in Asuncion and in the Argentine Republic. 

The nature of the ground of these immense virgin forests, peopled with tropical 
and subtropical plants attached to the soil by immense filaments that, like monstrous 
serpents, wind themselves around the great trees, is sandy, dyed led by the oxy hy- 
drate of iron and provided with a great quantity of vegetable earth produced from 
the decayed vegetation. It is admirably adapted for any kind of cultivation. In 
the lap of the hillocks sugar cane, tobacco, wheat, maize, potatoes, and peanuts can 
be raised; on their slopes, coffee and vines; in the valleys, rice and lucerne. 

The Spaniards cultivated wheat and the vine during the whole period of their 
occupation, and these cultivations did not cease until the time of the war. 

Vines of from thirty to forty years are still to be found producing fruit, notwith- 
standing having been reduced to a wild state. 

Azara speaks of these cultivations in his description of Paraguay. 

One of the greatest advantages is that by alternating the cultivation during a long 
period the ground is sown continually. 

Maize is harvested as often as three times a year. 

159 



Appendix No. 4. 



PARAGUAYAN LAND LAW OF 1885. 

Aeticle 1. The Executive is hereby authorized to sell the public lands in accord- 
ance with the provisions of this law. 
Aet. 2. The public lands shall be divided into five classes, as follows: 

(1) Lands of the first class are those situated in the following departments: San 
Lorenzo del Campo Grande, San Lorenzo de la Frontera, Ipane, Guarambare, Villosa, 
Villa Oliva, Villa Franca, Villa del Pilar, Villa Humaita, Luque, Limpio, Emboscada, 
Arroyos y Esteros, Villa del Rosario, San Estanislao, A 7 illa de San Pedro, Villa de 
Concepcion hasta el Aquidaban, Aregua-Capiata, Ita, Itaugua, Pirayu, Yaguaron, 
Altos, Atira, Tobati, Caacupe, Barrero Grande, Caraguatay, San Jose, Itacurubi de 
la Cordillera, Valenzuela, Ibitimi, Paraguari, Acahay, Carapegua, Tabapy, Quiiadi, 
Ibicui, Caapucu, Quiquio, Mbayapey, Villa Florida, San Miguel, San Juan Bautista 
de las Misiones, Villa Encarnacion, Caazapa, Ihacanguazu, Villa Rica, Itape e Itacu- 
rubi del Rosario. 

(2) Lands of the second class are those situated in the following departments: 
Pedro Gonzalez, Laureles, Yabebiry, Desmochados, Tacuaras, Guazucua, Isla Ombu, 
San Ignacio, Santa Maria, Santa Rosa, Santiago, San Cosmo, Bobi, Carmen del Parana, 
Jesus y Trinidad, San Pedro de Parana, Ytu, San Juan Nepomuceno, Mbncayaty, 
Yatahity, Hiaty, Ajos, Carayao, San Joaquin, Union, Horqueta, San Juan Bautista 
de Nembucu, Lima, Tacuati, and in the territory stretching from the confluence of 
the Aquidaban and the Paraguay to the Rio Apa. Lands in the latter territory are 
to be sold in lots with an area five times larger than the frontage required for lots on 
the Paraguay River. 

(3) Lands of the third class are those comprised between the Pilcomayo and Villa 
Concepcion in the Chaco territory, fronting the Rio Paraguay and at a depth of 10 
leagues inland. 

(4) Lands of the fourth class are those situated in the Chaco from Villa Concepcion 
upwards to a distance of 10 leagues, and thence 20 leagues of the belt of territory com- 
j)rised between the Pilcomayo and Villa Concepcion. 

(5) Lands of the fifth class are those not included in the above classes. 

Aet. 3. The price of lands of the first class is hereby set down at 1,200 hard dollars 
in current funds per square league; lands of second class 800 hard dollars; third class 
300 dollars; fourth class 200, and fifth class 100 dollars. The price of arable lands 
shall be at the rate of one hard dollar cash per area of 10,000 square yards, provided 
that the lot does not exceed half a league square. 

Aet. 4. The payment of the price of the lands can be effected in four yearly install- 
ments; the first to comprise 25 per cent of the total amount and to be paid at the 
Junta de Credito Publico in legal-tender money or in public fund bonds, with the 
intervention of the Contador general, and subject to all the other formalities of law. 
For the other payments three promissory notes to the order of the Junta and payable 
in one, two, and three years, with interest at 6 per cent, shall be given. 

Aet. 5. All payments after the passing of this law for sales or leases of land in 
the national territories shall be made either in legal-tender money or in public-fund 
bonds. 

160 



PARAGUAY. 161 

Art. 6. Purchasers are at liberty to pay their notes at any time with a reduction of 
12 per cent per annum from the day of payment. 

Aet. 7. At the time of recording the deed of purchase, a special mortgage shall be 
placed in favor of the Government upon the purchased lands. 

Art. 8. To pay off the mortgage, wholly or in part, the interested parties shall 
present at the ministry of interior the notes paid by them, and the necessary orders 
shall be issued to the Registrador for the corresponding cancellation. 

Art. 9 The nonpayment of the notes at their maturity shall give the Government 
the right to proceed against the property, and the Junta de Credito Publico shall 
sell it without applying for judicial authorization. Thirty days' notice must be 
given in the papers that the property is to be sold at auction. If the notes be paid 
at least a day before the auction, the sale shall be suspended, and the debtor shall be 
allowed to continue to hold the property, he having to pay, however, a penalty of 
12 per cent per year and the expenses of advertisement. Otherwise the sale shall 
be made for cash, and the proceeds thereof shall be applied (1) to pay the overdue 
note, with interest, and (2) to pay the further installments, if any, with a discount 
of 12 per cent per year. The balance, if any, shall be returned to the purchaser. 

Art. 10. Pasture lands shall only be sold in fractions, or tracts, of less than half a 
league, when isolated areas of such a size can be found. In such cases the sales 
shall be made upon report from the local authority, and the price shall be propor- 
tionate to that above established and payable in the same way. 

Applicants for lands at El Chaco are bound to purchase areas whose depths are 
ten times greater than their frontages. 

Art. 11. Purchasers of fractions of the Chaco lands shall be entitled to a reduction 
of 50 per cent on the price stipulated in Article 4, on condition that during the 
term of payment 25 European families (a family consisting of 3 persons) are settled 
thereon. 

A fraction of land is understood to consist, for the purposes of the preceding article, 
of an area 1 league front by 10 deep. 

Art. 12. In case of several applicants for the purchase of lands, an auction shall 
be held, and the land shall be sold to the highest bidder, taking as basis the price 
established by article 3. 

To carry this provision into effect, it shall be necessary to publish in the news- 
papers, for thirty days, the names of the applicants, the locality where the lands are 
situated, the extent of their areas, and their limits. 

The competition shall take place only when the applications have been filed 
simultaneously. 

Art. 13. The following lands are not to be sold : (1) Those lands especially 
excepted in virtue of previous laws. (2) Those lands the Executive may deem 
advisable to reserve for colonization purposes. 

Art. 14. The following prices are to be paid for leases: $250 for first-class; $200 
for second-class; $150 for third-class; $100 for fourth-class. Payments to be made 
in legal money or in public-fund bonds. Lands whose sale is reserved under 
article 13 are excepted. 

Art. 15. One year after the promulgation of this law, settlers who may not have 
purchased the land they occupy, shall pay at the rate of 25 cents per "cuadra" per 
annum, and shall at the same time be entitled to buy the lands they occupy in prefer- 
ence to any interested party. 

Art. 16. The fees to be paid for deeds of purchase executed under the provisions 
of this law shall not exceed one-fourth of the regular fees legally charged in other 
cases. 

Art. 17. The Executive power is hereby authorized to open roads and highways 
in the territory of El Chaco. 

Art. 18. All other laws and provisions relating to sales and leases of public lands 
heretofore enacted, and in conflict with the present one, are hereby repealed. 

85a— 02 11 



162 PARAGUAY. 

Art. 19. The Executive Power shall make proper rules for the execution of the 
present law. 

Art. 20. Let it be transmitted to the Executive. 

Hall of sessions of Congress, July 11, 1885. 

Approved July 16, 1885. 

By law, approved September 3, 1894, it was provided that whenever the regular 
prices set forth by the law of 1885 are not obtained in the forced sales of lands, under 
article 9 of the same, the property shall revert to the Government. 

Executive Decree of February 26, 1902, published in the Diario Oficial on the 28th of the same month, 

regarding grants of lands. 

Article I. * * * 

Art. II. The country lots shall be granted to none but colonists, whether natives 
or foreigners, and each family shall have one lot gratuitously. The final title papers 
shall be given to the grantee at the end of two years of actual occupancy, said time 
to be counted from the date on which the provisional title papers were issued; but 
the grantee has to prove, before receiving such final papers, that he, either person- 
ally or through his agents, has kept under cultivation, for the said two years, at 
least one-fourth of the total area of the grant, and- also that at the moment of his 
application for said final papers he has on the same ground, in good state of cultiva- 
tion, a grove of either 500 white banana trees, 200 orange trees, 300 mandarin trees, 
2,000 abacaci trees, or 300 lemon trees, the area of said groves to be a part of the 
total extent required. 

A colonist who has no family shall be entitled to only one-half of a lot. 

Art. III. Each colonist shall be bound to fence at least the cultivated portion of 
his lot. 

Art. IV. The squares in the cities and towns shall each be divided into fourteen 
lots, as follows: The four corner lots shall have a frontage of 15 meters, and a depth 
of 40 meters; the four lots next to the corner, on the east and west sides, shall have 
a frontage of 17 meters and 50 centimeters, and a depth of 40 meters; and the two 
intermediate lots, one on the northern and the other on the southern side, shall have 
a frontage of 20 meters, and a depth of 50 meters. They shall be numbered from 
1 to 14. 

Art. V. The city lots shall be given gratuitously to anyone who applies for them, 
whether colonist or not, on condition that he shall build ■ thereon, within a year, a 
frame or other building of not less than two rooms, each at least 6 meters high and 
5 meters square. If the building is not erected within the appointed time the con- 
cessions shall be forfeited. The final title papers shall not be given to the grantee 
except upon proof that he has fulfilled these requisites. 

Art. VI. No lots shall be granted in a square until all the lots of the one next in 
order have been disposed of. Grantees of these lots shall fence their respective 
property, and plant trees in line at a distance of 5 meters apart in front of their lots. 

Art. VII. The Director-General of Immigration shall reserve in each city or town 
a number of squares sufficient to build thereon public buildings, or to be turned into 
public parks. 

Art. VIII. As soon as the colonist or settler has selected his lot the local commis- 
sioner shall so inform the Director-General of Immigration, transmitting with his 
report the application of the colonist, which shall be made according to a certain 
form prepared for that purpose. Upon this application the Director-General shall 
issue the provisional title papers, setting forth the name, nationality, age, and condi- 
tion of the colonist or settler, the number of persons composing his family, if he has 
any, the number of the lot selected by him as set forth in the plat of the colony, the 
conditions of its delivery, its dimensions, its boundaries, its area, and the class of 
fruit trees to which Article 2 of the present law refers when speaking of the lots in the 
country. 



PARAGUAY. 163 

The report of the Commissioner shall set forth the day and hour on which the 
application was filed, whether the lot selected can be granted, and, in case of coun- 
try lots, whether the applicants therefor are really agriculturists, and whether they 
have the means and attitude necessary for the cultivation and settlement which they 
are bound to make, said requisites to be proved to the satisfaction of the said author- 
ity before the colonists being granted the provisional title papers. 

Art. IX. The provisional title papers so issued shall be delivered to the applicant, 
upon his receipt, through the commissioner of the colony, who shall keep in his 
office a register, in which they shall be recorded. There shall be in the said registry 
book one page for each lot, and all the facts and circumstances relating to the latter 
shall be recorded thereon. * * * 

Art. X. Colonists shall not be allowed to sell or transfer in any manner or form 
their provisional title papers, and the concession shall be forfeited if the conditions 
thereof are not complied with within the time required by this decree. 

Art. XI. A colonist who has made application for lots in one colony shall not 
obtain any concession in another, unless he waives all his rights to the former. 

Art. XII. Xo one shall make use of the right granted by law to acquire by pur- 
chase additional lots, unless he proves himself capable of properly cultivating them. 
He has also to prove his good moral character and to have secured the final title 
papers of the former lot granted to him. 

Art. XIII. The concession of lots and the issuing of title papers under the pro- 
visions of the foregoing article shall be made exactly on the same terms and in the 
same form established by Articles II, VIII, and the following of the present decree. 

Art. XIV. Any colonist incapable of working or notoriously objectionable for 
his bad habits may be removed from the colony by the Director-General of Immigra- 
tion, upon competent proof. If any indemnification is due him for any acquired 
rights or for his work or property, the payment thereof shall be made previously to 
his removal. 

Art. XV. No store shall be opened in a colony during the first three years of its 
establishment, unless with the permission of the Director-General of Immigration; 
but restaurants and places where alcoholic liquors are sold shall never be permitted. 

Art. XVI. All questions between the colonists regarding their rights to any lot 
before the final papers thereto are issued and all questions arising between the 
colonists and the commissioner or authorities of the colony shall be decided by the 
Director-General of Immigration, from whose decision an appeal can be taken to 
the Executive power. 

Art. XVII. The colonists shall be bound, for statistical purposes, to furnish all 
the information which may be requested of them regarding the condition and yield 
of their crops or the industries in which they may be engaged. 

Art. XVIII. The present decree shall be printed in pamphlet form, and a copy of 
the map of the colony shall be appended to it. The pamphlet shall be distributed 
among the settlers. 

Art. XIX. The provisions of the law of colonization shall be observed in all cases 
about which no special provision has been made in the present decree. 

Note. — By a decree of March 10, 1902, the provisions of the foregoing decree have 
been made applicable to all the colonies now established or which may be estab- 
lished in the future in the territory of the Republic. 



Appendix No. 5. 



REPORT ON YERBA MATE OR PARAGUAY TEA. 

[By United States Consul Baker, of Buenos Ayres.] 

I am in receipt of a number of letters from parties in the United States making 
inquiries in regard to what is known in South America as yerba mate or Paraguay 
tea, some requesting me to send specimens of the article for trial, others asking in 
reference to the possibility of cultivating the plant in the United States, and others 
still desiring to be informed if it would pay to import it as an article of commerce. 
I have answered some of these letters, but it may serve a better purpose for me to 
communicate what I know in regard to the matter in the form of a report to the 
Department of State, through which medium it will secure a larger publicity. 



DEMAND FOE THE TEA IN THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

I would premise by stating that the article referred to forms one of the largest 
items in the foreign commerce of the Argentine Republic, and occupies pretty much 
the same place in the household economy here that tea or coffee does at home. The 
demand for it which exists in this country (to say nothing of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, 
and Brazil, where it is perhaps even more generally used) will be readily seen from 
the custom-house returns. 

Besides the large quantities which are produced in the Argentine territory of 
Misiones, the following table, compiled from figures obtained from the national statis- 
tical reports, « shows the quantities and values of the imports of yerba mate into 
the country during the years named: 





Imports of yerba mate. 


Year. 


From Paraguay. 


From Brazil. 




Amount. 


Value. 


Amount. 


Value. 


1876 


Kilos. 

1, 607, 368 

2, 815, 190 

2, 828, 135 

3, 061, 030 
4, 951, 555 
5, 173, 277 


"$547, 407 
421, 814 
419, 645 
516, 419 
628, 140 
691, 193 


Kilos. 
6, 650, 054 

8, 826, 174 
6, 411, 846 

10, 170, 666 

9, 019, 510 
8, 354, 413 


$1, 090, 112 


1877 


1, 037, 657 


1878 


749, 262 


1879 


1, 266, 088 


1880 


1, 064, 827 


1881 


1, 075, 867 





a Estadistica del Comercio de la Republica Argentina, 1876-1881. 



164 



PARAGUAY. 



165 



By way of comparison, I would state that during the same time the following were 
the imports of the Chinese tea and coffee into the Argentine Republic: 



Year. 


Imports of tea. 


Imports of coffee. 


Amount. 


Value. 


Amount. 


Value. 


1876 


Kilos. 
195, 199 
312, 876 
195, 915 
307, 564 
280, 806 
288, 948 


$189, 940 
296, 015 
189, 306 
301, 977 
274, 549 
272, 858 


Kilos. 
1, 245, 097 
1, 288, 525 
1, 401, 202 
1, 456, 381 
1, 804, 784 
1, 886, 553 


$314, 381 


1877 


375, 505 


1878 


421, 943 


1879 


446, 299 


1880 


498, 588 


1881 


538, 356 







It will be seen by these figures that the amount of yerba mate imported into the 
Argentine Republic every year is about six times greater than the total amount of 
tea and coffee combined, and that the value of the same is twice as great as that of 
both together, to say nothing of the amount which is produced in the country, 
amounting to perhaps half as much again, thus entitling it to be called the Argentine 
national beverage. 

WHAT IS YERBA MATE? 

This yerba mate « (Ilex Paraguayensis, De Candolle; Ilex mate, Aug. St. Hilaire; 
Peoralia glandulosa, Lime) is a species of holly, and grows in abundance between 
the twentieth and thirtieth degrees of south latitude, but especially in the neighbor- 
hoods of the Upper Parana and Uruguay rivers. It is a tree of the size and appear- 
ance of the orange, but more delicate, and, like it, it retains its leaves during the 
entire year. The leaf is oval, not so long as that of the orange, of a dark-green color 
of metallic brightness, with very marked veins. The blossom is not very conspicu- 
ous, and leaves behind it a berry containing small seeds of fatty albumen. 

Like all other trees of the holly family, the mate contains a bitter element, and to 
this slight bitterness is added a peculiar and rather agreeable aroma, both in the 
leaves and in the young twigs. These are the parts of the tree or shrub which, when 
gathered and dried, are known as "yerba mate," and which is so generally used as 
a drink or tea throughout this part of South America. This beverage is not a dis- 
covery made by the Spaniards, who settled the country, but it seems to have been 
used by the Indian tribes ' ' since time whereof the memory of man runneth not 
to the contrary." The Guarani Indians, who in early times inhabited the banks of 
the Uruguay and Parand rivers, imparted the sc ;ret to their conquerors, who were 
not slow in appreciating its virtues and adopting its use, until it has become a leading 
article of commerce, and has its place with the lares and penates of every native 
household. 

WHERE IT COMES FROM. 

The yerba mate, as an article of commerce, comes from three principal sources, to 
wit: Paraguay, the Brazilian province of Sao Paulo, and the Argentine territory of 
Misiones. The most highly esteemed comes from Paraguay, the next is that from 
Misiones, while the yerba of Sao Paulo, shipped from Paranagua, occupies the lowest 
rank. Formerly, and especially during the time that Jesuits had their seat in this 
country, the harvesting was done with particular care, the Indians under their direc- 
tion separating the leaves according to their different degrees of development, and 



a Description geographique et statistique de 
vol. 1, pp. 428 et seq. 



confederation Argentine; par. V. Martin de Moussy: 



166 PAKAGUAY. 

laboriously removing the little twigs and the stems and ribs of the leaves. In fact, it 
was in many places cultivated artificially and the different missions had their own 
plantings of "yerbales," the trees being carefully tended and protected. Thus they 
gave more abundant harvests and the leaves ripened more completely. 

But all the formerly cultivated "yerbales" have disappeared, and those that 
remain in the deep forests of the Upper Parana are, many of them, quite worn out. 

Only in Paraguay has the old method been even partially continued; and the yerba 
mate from there, although much dearer in price, is really more economical, as it is 
stronger and more aromatic. 

PARAGUAY MATE. 

In Paraguay the Government has the monopoly of the sale of all the yerba mate 
which is produced in the country. 

The "yerbales" are spread over almost the entire surface of the Eepublic; but the 
most famous now are those of Tacuru-pucu, a desert sort ox a place not far from the 
great falls of the Upper Parana River and the southern slopes of the Sierra de Mara- 
cayii. It is gathered and cured, sometimes under the superintendence of the Gov- 
ernment officials of the departments in which it is found, and sometimes by private 
individuals who receive permission to work on prescribed conditions and deliver the 
produce to the Government. 

In the more remote places, and especially in the neighborhood of hostile Indians, 
the Paraguayan Government generally employs its soldiers in the work of harvesting 
the yerba mate. When worked by officials the workmen are drafted from the neigh- 
borhood, as for any other public work, and are paid in cured yerba, or in goods, such 
as wearing apparel, etc., with which the Government keeps itself supplied for that 
purpose, and on which it gains the usual percentage. When worked by individuals 
the general rule is to allow them one-third of the yerba cured, they paying all 
expenses. 

ARGENTINE MATE. 

The "yerbales" of the Misiones, now under cultivation and worked, are for the 
most part situated in the deep bend which the Uruguay Eiver makes toward the 
northwest of the province of Rio Grande do Sul, belonging to Brazil; but there are 
others equally productive in the neighborhood of the village of San Xavier, from 
which place the yerba mate is sent to Itaquay, a somew T hat important town on the 
Uruguay, whence it comes by rivers to this port. 

As the Argentine Government makes no proprietary claim to the product, the 
' ' yerbales ' ' of western Misiones are all worked by individuals, who have no further 
concern for them than to make all they can out of their labor. Were the forests 
better protected from spoliation by the Government the industry, now that Misiones 
has been organized under a territorial government, might acquire a great development. 

HARVESTING OF THE YERBA. 

The harvesting of the yerba mate is a very simple process. Before commencing 
the work the patron or superintendent selects his location, having in view the quan- 
tity of material and the facility of transportation, and erects the necessary buildings, 
consisting generally of a shed 50 or 60 feet in length for storing the goods and pro- 
visions that he may have and the yerba that he collects; also a number of small huts 
or dwellings for the workmen, and the frames (barbacoas) upon which the material 
is dried. These are constructed of poles and withes from 15 to 20 feet square, with 
arched or angular roofs and firm, even floors made of clay, extending 6 or 8 feet 
beyond the frames on all sides, for the convenience of pulverizing the material after 
it is dried. Near each barbacoa is erected a stand or elevated seat, from which the 
foreman may watch the drying process and make such changes in the disposition of 



PARAGUAY. 167 

the material as he may deem necessary. Each workman climbs a tree and with a 
large knife or facon cuts off all the small branches bearing leaves until the tree is 
quite stripped. These branches, made up into' small bundles, are borne to the dry- 
ing frame and lightly heaped on top. Undei- this is then lighted a clear though not 
very hot fire, under the influence of which the yerba mate is gradually dried. 

It is important that the brush used for fuel should contain no bad element, but, on 
the contrary, should be aromatic, upon which the quality of the yerba in a great 
measure depends. 

This toasting process occupies from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, the fires being 
kept up from daylight till 7 or 8 o'clock p. m. If it rains upon the material while 
in process of drying, it is necessary to spread it out and redry it; and yerba which 
has been so made is not considered so good for preservation, and is generally sold 
for home consumption. When the drying process is completed the fire is removed 
and the floor is swept off, and the dry material, being worked through the frame, 
falls to the floor and is pounded with flat wooden instruments until reduced to 
the condition of a coarse powder, and it is gradually removed to the storehouse as it 
becomes so. 

Sometimes it is pounded in a wooden mortar, or it is put through a sort of crush- 
ing mill, which consists of a circular stone worked in a trough by a mule or horse. 
The yerba is then packed in hide bales, made by cutting the raw hide even, doubling 
it lengthwise and sewing up the sides with hide thongs. These bales are first soft- 
ened in water, and are then packed with the yerba, which is done by settling it well 
with a heavy wooden pestle, and gradually closing up the open end until the bale 
will contain no more. The hide then contracting, as it dries, increases greatly the 
compactness of the whole, and it is ready for transportation. These bales are termed 
tercios, the larger ones containing from 200 to 250 English pounds. They are loaded 
either on horseback or in carts, according to the localities, and sent to the ports of 
shipment on the rivers. 

The workmen are paid at the rate of about 25 cents per arroba (25 pounds) for the 
cured yerba as it is brought from the barbacoa, and a packer makes about 6 cents 
per arroba, the hide being furnished by the employer. 

Where the ' ' yerbales ' ' are worked by private parties the gatherers of the yerba 
sell their crop of the day to the proprietors of the crushing mills, which are gener- 
ally established near by. 

The packing of the yerba in hides, which requires particular care, is done princi- 
pally in the neighboring towns or in establishments made especially for the purpose. 

I would state that the leaf of the yerba mate, or the tree, is evergreen; can be 
gathered all the year round. It is better, however, at the end of summer, though 
very little notice is taken of this circumstance. 

The greater portion of the yerba mate produced in the southern provinces of 
Brazil is exported from the port of Paranagua, on the Atlantic coast. In Paraguay 
no yerba mate is permitted to be exported except from the city of Asuncion, as the 
trade is a monopoly of the Government and the greatest source of its national 
resources. It comes down in the river boats either to this city or Montevideo, 
whence what is not required for local consumption finds a market elsewhere. 

The duty on yerba mate imported into the Argentine Eepublic is 6 cents per kilo- 
gram on the customs valuation, w T hich is 13 cents per kilogram on that imported from 
Brazil and 15 cents on that from Paraguay. 

HOW YERBA MATE IS USED. 

As I have stated, the use of the yerba mate is general among the native population 
of the Argentine Republic, as well as of all the adjacent countries. 

While coffee and Chinese tea are to some extent adopted by them in Buenos Ayres, 
in the interior the universal beverage is Paraguayan tea; and in many cases foreign- 



168 PARAGUAY. 

ers who have lived in the country for years become equally fond of the drink. The 
taste, however, is, to a great extent, an acquired one, and most Europeans who live 
here prefer the Chinese tea. 

In Paraguay the yerba mate is almost exclusively made use of, and even in the 
interior of Brazil, in spite of the fact that coffee is the leading article of production, 
there seems to be a preference for yerba mate. « 

The analysis shows that yerba mate contains caffeine, the principle existing both 
in coffee and Chinese tea, and it is claimed that it not only possesses the mildly 
exhilarating qualities of the Chinese plant, ' ' which cheers but not inebriates, ' ' but 
that it also has other virtues which make it more valuable as a tonic or strengthen- 
ing beverage. Indeed, when used to excess, it even produces a kind of intoxication. 
The preparation of the beverage, though very simple, is very different from that of 
tea. A small spoonful or pinch of the powdered yerba is placed In a kind of gourd, 
which is called a mate, and in which is previously inserted the bombilla, a silver tube, 
the lower bulb of which is pierced with very small holes (small to keep the powder 
from passing in), and which serves to suck the liquid. Water boiling hot is then 
poured in, and the tea is ready for use. The true amateurs of the beverage, in the 
country principally, take their mate without sugar (mate amargo). In the city, how- 
ever, it is taken with powdered sugar, Avhich is put into the gourd each time that it 
is replenished. It is also sometimes flavored with orange or lemon. The mate is 
imbibed very much as we would take a "sherry cobbler," though the process is con- 
siderably slower from the fact that it is taken very hot, and it requires great care for 
an inexperienced person to keep from scalding his tongue and throat. When tepid 
the mate loses its aroma and becomes insipid. Some of these mate cups are beauti- 
fully worked in figures and bound in silver, while the bombillas are also handsomely 
wrought, the whole costing many dollars. 

In nearly all native houses the mate circulates almost continuously all day long. 
It is the offering made to all guests, and the same mate cup and tube do service for 
all who are present, each one as the cup is replenished taking turns at the bombilla. 
To refuse to take mate when offered would be considered rude, if not an insult to 
country hospitality. 

Many persons, especially ladies, give themselves up to the use of mate, drinking it 
in excessive quantities, and thus contracting a lazy habit, which, as I am informed, 
in time weakens the digestive organs, causing loss of appetite, and consequently 
debilitating the vital economy. 

In traveling, however, its virtues are very conspicuous, since by its use hunger is 
in a remarkable manner postponed. An Argentine g audio, for instance, will take a 
mate or two in the early morning, and gallop his horse all day long, requiring noth- 
ing more in the way of food or drink until nightfall, when he will break his fast 
with the only ' ' square ' ' meal of the day. 

So, too, with the drivers of the long caravans of bullock carts, which traverse the 
limitless pampas, laden with wool and hides for Buenos Ayres, or with return 
cargoes of assorted merchandise for the country stores (pulperias) . Before breaking 
camp in the morning all hands will indulge in a general round of mate drinking, and 
they will not make a halt for refreshments until they go into camp again at night- 

aSome attempts to cultivate Chinese tea in Sao Paulo and Minas proved a sad failure, as the qual- 
ity produced was a very inferior one; whether from the effects of the climate or bad management I 
can not tell. Certainly the patient, slender-fingered son of the " Celestial Empire " seems to be bet- 
ter suited to the subtle work of gathering and sorting the leaves than the negro. But they have an 
excellent equivalent for it in Brazil, the Paraguay tea (Ilex Paraguay ensis) , also called "hervamate" 
or " congonha," growing wild evefywhere in the southern provinces of Brazil, and forming already a 
considerable article of export. An infusion of the dried and pounded leaves, imbibed through a del- 
icately plaited little tube {bombilla), is the indispensable natural beverage of all classes, etc. (The 
Amazon and Madeira Rivers: Sketches and Descriptions from the Notebook of an Explorer, by Frank 
Keiler, Engineer, London, 1874.) 



PARAGUAY. 169 

fall, when they will partake of a substantial dinner of fresh beef or mutton, roasted 
on spits in front of their camp fires. But inveterate mate drinking is not con- 
fined to old ladies and the denizens of the pampas. It has "come down from 
a former generation" as a sort of official institution Avhich has become venerable 
with time and must not be interfered with. And every day in all the public 
offices, both of the nation and of the province, the hours of siesta « are set apart, to 
a great extent, for an indiscriminate bout at the mate cup, all employees, from the 
grave minister of government to the porter who guards the door, taking their turns 
at the bombilla, much to the delay, sometimes, of those who have business to be 
dispatched h . The habit of mate drinking is easily acquired, and I do not hesitate to 
say that is very agreeable, especially in the morning, upon rising, or in the middle 
of the day between meals. There is no doubt, however, that it weakens the appetite 
if it is taken before eating; but even Chinese tea will do that. 

CAN THE PLANT BE ACCLIMATIZED IN THE UNITED STATES? 

So much for the yerba mate — its growth, its harvesting, its marketing, and its use 
in the Argentine Republic. 

The question now recurs, in answer to the various letters I have received on the 
subject, whether it would be feasible to undertake to introduce this Paraguayan tea, 
either by acclimatizing the plant or by importing the product, as an article of 
domestic use into the United States. 

(1) Can the plant {Ilex P.) be grown in the United States? In my opinion, there 
is no reason why it would not thrive in any of the extreme Southern States and in Cali- 
fornia. The success of the Jesuits in establishing artificial yerbales at Yapecu proves 
that it will flourish in the thirtieth degree of south latitude, and I do not see why it 
could not be cultivated up to an equal latitude in the United States. I have seen it 
stated that the plant has been tested on the island of Martin Garcia, opposite Buenos 
Ayres, in the river Plate, and M. de Monssey, the French savant, to whose investiga- 
tions I am indebted for much information on the subject, thinks its cultivation 
could be undertaken anywhere in the Argentine Republic as far south as the province 
of Corrientes with success. I am informed that the yerba grows perfectly well from 
the seed, but it is delicate for the first few years and needs the best of care and arbor 
culture; but, from what I have seen of the yerba forests of Paraguay, I should judge 
that when once well set there would be no further trouble so far as the plantations 
are concerned ; but whether the leaf would retain its delicate aroma and other essen- 
tial qualities under different conditions and surroundings is a question which can 
only be solved by actual experiment. The plant, however, seems to prefer a sub- 
tropical climate, and I would not advise anyone to undertake its cultivation on a 
grand scale in the United States without first experimenting with it; and even if its 
cultivation were attempted, it might result as the various schemes for introducing 
the Chinese plant have done. 

(2) 1 would therefore suggest to parties who are desirous of attempting the inaugu- 
ration of the use of the yerba mate in the United States that they confine themselves 

a " Siesta" is the hottest part of the day and the time for napping, generally from 1 to 3 o'clock, 
but it is not so universally indulged in here as in the " campo." In many places business is entirely 
suspended during these hours. 

t>I have before me the Prensa, a newspaper of this city, of the date of November 29, which, in an 
article on " Official abuses," is quite severe on this habit of official mate drinking. I translate the 
following paragraph: 

" In the public offices the official only attends the public from 2 to 3 o'clock or from 3 to 4, in order 
that nobody may interrupt him at the hour of taking mate. When mate is suppressed in the public 
offices the Government will lose the aspect of town grogshops (despachos de aldea), and the adminis- 
tration of business will gain much in promptitude and regularity. Messieurs ministers and chiefs 
of bureaus, we denounce mate as a grand conspirator against the public interests, and especially 
against labor in the public offices." 



170 PARAGUAY. 

for the present to the importation of the article. There is no difficulty in the way 
of doing this. The article is so securely packed in hide bales that it will stand any 
amount of hard handling without detriment, while the steamers leaving this port 
for New York, to say nothing of sailing vessels, if preferred, would deliver it in less 
than a month from the date of shipment. 

The price of the yerba in this market is 16 cents per pound for that from Paranagua 
(Brazil), and 32 cents for that from Paraguay. Where it is purchased in quantities 
(in the tercios) it can be obtained for $4.60 to $4.80 per arroba of 25 pounds, and in 
bags at $2.20 to $2.80 per arroba. That from Brazil, in barrels, sells for about $2.50 
per arroba. 

It must be borne in mind, however, by those who propose to engage in the trade 
that they will have to educate their customers into the manner of preparing the tea, 
and especially into the mysteries of the mate gourd and the tube. Indeed, perhaps 
they would have to order a shipment of the articles in question along with the mate, 
since they are entirely unknown to the trade in the United States. 

Any further correspondence on the subject will be duly turned over by me to 
those who deal in the yerba. 



Appendix No. 6. 



DIRECT-TAX LAW OF PARAGUAY, DECEMBER 22, 1890. 

Aeticle 1. On and after January 1, 1892, all lands and buildings belonging to 
private parties shall be subject to a direct tax of $3 per $1,000 per annum on the 
assessed value. 

Art. 2. Rural property shall be valued without taking into account the crops or 
buildings thereon. Rural property shall be understood to be, for the purposes of 
this article, all property situated outside the commons of the villages. 

Art. 3. The following are exempt from direct taxation: 

(1) Property not exceeding in value $1,000, unless the owner has property to the 
same amount in any other place. 

(2) National and municipal property, churches of any denomination, and build- 
ings intended for schools, hospitals, houses of correction, and charity. 

(3) Buildings in construction, in which case the lot only shall be taxed. 

(4) Property excepted by special laws from the payment of the tax. 

Art. 4. The valuation of the property and the payment of the tax shall be made 
at the time and in the manner fixed by the Executive Power. 

The valuation made shall continue in force during the term of the law, and the 
payment may be made in two installments. 

Art. 5. Appeals against the valuations may be taken to the board of public credit, 
whose decision shall be final. 

Art. 6. Those who fail to pay the tax within the limit fixed by the Executive 
Power shall be fined an amount equal to the tax due. 

Art. 7. The payment of the tax shall be enforced through summary proceedings 
before the justice of the peace by the tax collector authorized for that purpose by 
the Executive Power; the certificate of the board of public credit being sufficient 
evidence of delinquency. 

Art. 8. No other defense shall be admitted than lack of personality, forgery of the 
titles, or previous payment. 

Art. 9. In the case referred to in article 7 the presence of the owner is not neces- 
sary; if absent, the proceedings to enforce the payment shall be conducted in the 
following manner: 

(1) All notices shall be served on the persons in charge, even if only incidentally, 
of the lands and buildings, without regard to their relations to the owner. 

(2) On lessees or occupants; in default of either, a person shall be named by the 
court to represent the absent owner. 

Art. 10. No deed of transfer of property shall be executed without the previous 
presentation of the certificate of the board of public credit, showing that all taxes 
thereon have been paid. 

Art. 11. The board of public credit shall not issue the certificate mentioned in the 
preceding article unless the interested party presents at the same time the certificate 
of the accountant-general of the mortgage office, in which will be stated with exact- 
itude the name of the buyer and seller, the site, limits, price, and area of the prop- 
erty to be sold. 

171 



172 PARAGUAY. 

Public notaries shall render to the board of public credit a monthly statement of 
the deeds of transfer executed before them during that time, the statement to be 
accompanied with all the information required from the mortgage office. Violators 
of these articles shall suffer the penalty of suspension from office for a period of six 
to twelve months and a fine equivalent to ten times the amount of the tax due. 

Art. 12. The payment of fines referred to in the preceding article shall be enforced 
by the board of public credit by summary proceedings. 

Art. 13. The purchase price of lands or buildings shall be indisputable as regards 
valuation during one year for both the government and the owner, unless the land 
shall have been built upon or improved, in which case the existing buildings will be 
valued according to the articles of this law. 

Art. 14. The Executive Power is empowered to nominate the necessary staff for 
the execution of this law, and to fix the recompense for their work. 

Art. 15. The tax established by this law shall continue in force for the term of 
two years. 

Art. 16. The Executive Power shall make the rules and regulations necessary to 
carry the provisions of this law into effect. 

Art. 17. Communications will be made to the Executive Power. 



Appendix No. 7. 



COTTON CULTIVATION IN PARAGUAY. 

[From the "Asuncion Agronomic Review".] 

There are indications that cotton cultivation in Paraguay may be again as preva- 
lent and general as it was in former times; and the opportunity for a movement of 
this kind seems now to be propitious, because of the constantly increasing price paid 
for cotton in the European markets, and because of the security that even at the 
present prices, firmly established in the market, the cultivation of cotton should be 
remunerative. 

The ' ' Review ' ' has been consulted in regard to the advisability of importing foreign 
classes of this plant. In its No. 1, Vol. I, the "Review " set forth in full the results, 
really unsurpassable, of the domestic cotton plant, a bush belonging to the species 
Gossypium barbadense. The results which were secured in the experiments made 
with it showed a production higher than the highest ever obtained in the world on 
fertile grounds of virgin land. In years of good rains, and on a soil of volcanic origin, 
consisting of clay, iron ore, and humus, the production in the second year has been 
at the rate of 1,026 kilograms of clean cotton per hectare, this rate having fallen to 
954 kilograms per hectare in the third year. 

The "Review" does not advise the owners of these extremely fertile lands to 
change the domestic cotton plant, productive, hardy, and so easy to cultivate, for 
any other foreign variety. 

But the Paraguayan cotton plant does not give such good results on sandy grounds, 
which are subject with greater or lesser frequency to the evils of droughts. In these 
cases the cultivation of certain foreign varieties of the cotton plant seems to be 
indicated. The particular variety known by the name of herbaceous cotton, and all 
the others which have became famous in the United States of America for the beauty 
of their fiber and the abundance of their production, should be especially recom- 
mended. 

The results obtained at the Agronomical School at Paraguay in recent experiments 
were as follows: 

The soil on which they were made was essentially sandy, with some quantity of 
iron ore and very little humus. It had been under cultivation for many years and 
had become, it might be said, exhausted. Neither maize nor ricinus could be raised 
on it, and beans and mandioca were grown only precariously and in small quantities. 

As the experiments were made for the purpose of ascertaining the advantages which 
could be derived from exhausted grounds, no fertilizer of any kind was used; and 
in the planting of the seeds the same area was allotted to each different variety. 
The year proved to be quite dry and unfavorable, and at the end thereof the results 
were as follows: 



Peterkin 211. 8 

Hawkins 134. 5 

Texas Burr 126. 5 

Duxon 111. 1 

Sealsland 87. 2 



Prince Albert 78. 

Paraguay (ordinary) 60. 5 

Cook 21.8 

Georgia (Long) 13. 



173 



174 PARAGUAY. 

As shown by these figures, the differences were striking. The experiments in 
regard to the Georgia Long variety, so famous in the United States of America, 
proved beyond doubt that nothing can be expected from it in grounds of this kind, 
but it may possibly give better results in more fertile land. 

The Peterkin and the Hawkins varieties proved superior to all others, not only for 
the quantity, but for the beauty and fineness of the cotton produced. The pods 
were admirable. 

The varieties of herbaceous cotton yielded in the second year a crop as abundant 
as in the first; but the pods were not so handsome. On the third year they perished, 
after yielding almost nothing. It is to be believed that in fertile lands it will last 
longer; but the best way will be to renew the planting every two years. 

The Texas Burr variety is stronger, more resistant, and in all respects a very 
acceptable one. 

The Sea Island variety would have, no doubt, yielded better results in some other 
kind of ground, where the sand is mixed either with humus or iron ore. 



Appendix No. 8. 



TRADE-MARK LAW 

[July 6, 1889.] 
Title 1. — Ownership of trade-marks. 

Article 1. Trade-marks are names of objects or of persons, stated in a special 
form, emblems, monograms, engravings or prints, seals, vignettes, reliefs, letters and 
numbers of a particular design, receptacles or wrappers, and any other signs intended 
to distinguish manufactured products or articles of commerce. 

Art. 2.' Trade-marks can be affixed either upon the receptacles, wrappers, or the 
articles themselves. 

Art. 3. The following shall not be considered as trade-marks : 

1. Letters, words, names, or titles used or to be used by the Government. 

2. The form or shape given to the product by the manufacturer thereof. 

3. The color of the product. 

4. "Words and expressions which have become of general use. 

5. The designations usually employed to indicate the nature of the product, or the 
class to which it belongs. 

6. Drawings or expressions contrary to good morals. 

Art. 4. The absolute ownership of the trade-mark, and the right to oppose the 
use of any other which may directly or indirectly produce confusion between the 
products, belong to the manufacturer or merchant who has complied with the pro- 
visions of the present law. 

Art. 5. The absolute ownership of a trade-mark applies only to the kind of arti- 
cle specifically protected by the latter. 

Art. 6. The use of the trade-mark is optional, but it may be made obligatory 
when required for the public benefit. 

Art. 7. The ownership of a trade-mark is hereditary and can be transferred by 
contract or by last will and testament. 

Art. 8. The sale or transfer of the establishment where the article is produced 
carries with it the trade-mark, if not provided otherwise. The assignee shall have 
the right to use the trade-mark, even if consisting of the name of the assignor or of 
some one else, as freely as the assignor or seller himself might personally have done, 
with no other restrictions than those expressly set forth in the deed of sale or 
assignment. 

Art. 9. The transfer of a trade- mark shall have to be recorded at the office where 
it is registered. Otherwise the right to use it shall not be conveyed to the purchaser 
or assignee. 

Art. 10. No trade-marks shall be considered to be in actual use, for the purposes of 
ownership under the present law, except those for which the office has given a 
proper certificate. 

Art. 11. The protection of the rights of the manufacturer or merchant respecting 
the exclusive use of the trade-mark shall last only ten years, but may be extended 
indefinitely for equal periods, provided that all the formalities required are duly 
complied with and the tax to be established elsewhere in this law is duly paid. 

175 



176 PARAGUAY. 

Title 2. — Formalities for acquiring the ownership of trade-marks. 

Art. 12. All those wishing to secure the ownership of a trade-mark shall apply 
for it to the Board of Public Credit, in which a bureau of patents and trade-marks 
shall be established. 

Art. 13. Applications for trade-marks shall be accompanied by the following 
papers : 

1. Two copies of the trade-mark for which application is made. 

2. Description, in duplicate, of the trade-mark, if it consists of figures or emblems, 
indicating the class of objects for which the trade-mark is intended, and whether it 
applies to manufactured products or articles of commerce. 

3. A receipt showing that the amount of the tax established by article 19 of the 
present law has been paid in the office of the Treasurer of the Board of Public Credit, 
with the approval of the Comptroller of the Treasury. 

4. A power of attorney executed in due form of law in case the application is not 
made personally by the interested party. 

Art. 14. A record of all the applications filed shall be kept in a book, the pages of 
which shall be numbered and signed by the Secretary of the Treasury, briefly stating 
the contents of the application and the date and hour of filing. 

This record shall be signed by the President of the Board of Public Credit, or in 
his absence by another official of the Board, the Secretary and the applicant; and 
the latter shall be given, if he so desires, a certified copy thereof, written on a sheet 
of 50-cent stamped paper. 

Art. 15. Preference for the ownership of a trade-mark shall be governed by the 
day and hour on which the application was filed. 

Art. 16. A certificate of trade-mark to be issued by the Bureau of Patents shall 
consist of a certified copy of the decree by which it was granted, accompanied by a 
duplicate of the description and the drawings. This certificate shall be issued in the 
name of the Nation, and shall be authorized by the signatures of the President and 
Secretary of the Board of Public Credit, and with the seal of the Board. 

Art. 17. An appeal may be taken to the Secretary of the Treasury within the 
period of ten days against the decision of the Board of Public Credit denying the 
ownership of a trade-mark; and the Secretary of the Treasury shall confirm or repeal 
the decision after hearing the Solicitor-General. 

Art. 18. The Board of Public Credit shall keep a book in which all the concessions 
of trade-marks shall be inscribed in their regular order; and the President of the 
Board shall send every three months to the Secretary of the Treasury a statement of 
the certificates granted and denied, giving in each case the respective dates. 

These statements shall be published in the newspapers every three months. 

Art. 19. A tax or fee of $50 shall be paid for the registration of all trade-marks and 
the certificate thereof. 

For any certified copy of the said certificates which may be desired thereafter an 
additional fee of $5 shall be paid, this fee not including the value of the stamped 
paper, which shall be in this case $1 for the first folio and 25 cents for each additional 
one. 

Art. 20. The trade-marks for which certificates have been issued shall be kept in 
the archives of the Board of Public Credit. 

In case of litigation a drawing of the trade-mark or of any section thereof shall be 
produced before the court as evidence of its description. 

Art. 21. Trade-marks and the descriptions thereof shall be kept in the Bureau at 
the disposal of anyone wishing to examine them. 

Title 3. — Names of merchants and industrial establishments. 

Art. 22. The name of the merchant, firm, or business house dealing in a certain 
kind of article shall constitute industrial property for the purposes of the present law. 



PAKAGUAY. 177 

Art. 23. If a merchant desires to engage in an industry already established by 
another person with the same name, or with the same conventional designation, he 
shall have to adopt such a modification of the said name or designation as to render 
it visibly distinct therefrom. 

Art. 24. If a person who has been injured by the infringement of a trade-mark 
does not make claim within one year, to be counted from the date on which the 
infringement began, his action shall be barred by limitation. 

Art. 25. Joint stock corporations shall have a right to the name used by them and 
shall be subject to the same limitations as private individuals. 

Art. 26. The right to the exclusive use of a name as industrial property shall ter- 
minate together with the existence of the business house or branch of industry 
bearing the same. 

Art. 27. It shall not be necessary for the exercise of the rights granted by this law 
to register a name unless it forms part of the trade-mark. 

Title 4. — Penalties. 

Art. 28. Fines ranging from $20 to $500, and imprisonment from fifteen days to 
one year, shall be imposed on the following: 

1. Those who forge or in any manner alter a trade-mark. 

2. Those who affix upon their products or articles of commerce the trade-mark of 
some other person. 

3. Those who knowingly sell, offer for sale, consent to sell, or circulate articles 
on which a forged or fraudulent trade-mark has been affixed. 

4. Those who knowingly sell, offer for sale, or consent to sell forged trade-marks, 
and those who sell authentic marks without the knowledge of their owner. 

5. All those who with fraudulent intention affix, or cause others to affix, upon 
merchandise a title or any other false designation relating either to its nature, qual- 
ity, quantity, number, weight, or measure, or the time or country in which it has 
been manufactured or shipped. 

6. Those who knowingly sell, offer for sale, or consent to sell merchandise bearing 
the false titles and designations spoken of in the preceding paragraph. 

In cases of second offense the penalty shall be doubled. 

Art. 29. It shall not be necessary to constitute offense that the forgery embraces 
all the objects which should have been marked, it being sufficient when it appears 
on only one object. 

Art. 30. The simple attempt shall not be deemed punishable or to entail civil 
responsibility, but it shall be sufficient to order the destruction of the instruments 
which would have served for committing the forgery. 

Art. 31. Those who sell or offer for sale merchandise bearing a usurped or forged 
trade-mark shall be bound to give to the merchant or manufacturer who is the owner 
thereof complete information in writing of the name and address of the person or 
persons from whom he purchased or obtained the merchandise, and also of the time 
which they began to sell it; in case of refusal, they can be judicially compelled to do 
so under penalty of being considered as accessories of the offender. 

Art. 32. All merchandise bearing forged trade-marks which may be found in the 
possession of the forgerer or of his agents shall be confiscated and sold, and the pro- 
ceeds of the sale shall be applied, after deducting the costs and indemnities estab- 
lished by this law, to meet the expenses of the national schools. 

Art. 33. Forged trade-marks found in the possession of the forger or his agents 
shall be destroyed, together with the instruments which might have been used in 
making the forgery. 

Art. 34. Criminal proceedings shall be instituted only at the request of interested 
parties, but after they are started they may be continued by the Government attorney. 

The complainant may abandon his action at any time during the proceedings up 
to the moment of pronouncing the sentence. 

85a— 02 12 



178 PARAGUAY. 

Art. 35. Those who have been injured by violators of the present law have the 
right to sue for damages the authors and abettors of the offense. 

Condemnatory sentences shall be published at the expense of the condemned 
party. 

Art. 36. No criminal or civil action can be instituted after a lapse of three years to 
be counted from the date on which the offense was committed or repeated, or after 
one year to be counted from the date on which the owner of the trade-mark became 
acquainted for the first time with the fact. 

Interruptions of the time required to bar by limitation the action of a complainant 
shall be the same as are established by law for all cases. 

Art. 37. The provisions contained in the foregoing articles of the present title shall 
be applicable to those who, without any right to do so, make use of the name of a 
merchant or the title or designation of a commercial house or factory, as set forth in 
title 2 of the present law. 

Title 5. — Transitory provision. 

Art. 38. Manufacturers who, at the time of the promulgation of the present law, 
may be in possession of a trade-mark within the territory of the Republic shall not 
be entitled to the exclusive use of the same, except upon fulfilling the conditions 
required by the present law; and for this purpose the period of one year to be counted 
from the date of promulgation is hereby granted to them. 

Art. 39. In case that before the promulgation of the present law several manufac- 
turers have made use of the same trade-mark, the right to the exclusive use thereof 
shall be given to the one proving to have made first use of it. 

Should these parties be unable to prove priority in the use of the trade-mark, the 
ownership shall be given to the one doing the greatest amount of business. 

Art. 40. Parties failing to register a trade-mark within the period fixed in article 
38 of the present law shall not be entitled to take advantage of the use made thereof 
before the sanction of the present law to claim the right of priority. 

Art. 41. Before issuing a certificate of trade-mark within one year after the pro- 
mulgation of the present law, the application of the interested party or parties shall 
be published for thirty days, at the applicant's expense, in a newspaper of the capi- 
tal of the Republic, or of his residence should there be any published there. 

Art. 42. In order that foreign trade-marks may be given the protection accorded 
by this law, they shall have to be registered in conformity with its provisions. 

The owners of foreign trade-marks, or their duly accredited agents, are the only 
ones authorized to apply for their registration. 

Art. 43. The Executive Power shall make such rules as may be necessary for the 
execution of the present law. 

Art. 44. Let it be transmitted to the Executive Power. 



Appendix No. 9. 



TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS ENTERED INTO BY PARAGUAY 
WITH OTHER NATIONS. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

Treaty of peace, February 3, 1876. 
Treaty of limits, February 3, 1876. 
Treaty of extradition, March 6, 1877. 
Postal convention, March 17, 1877. 
Consular convention, March 14, 1877. 



Treaty of peace, January 9, 1872. 

Treaty of limits, January 9, 1872. 

Treaty for the extradition of criminals, January 16, 1872. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, May 28, 1884. 

BELGIUM. 

Convention of commerce and navigation, February 15, 1894. 

FRANCE. 

Convention of commerce and navigation, July 21, 1892. 

GERMANY. 

Treaty of commerce, July 21, 1887. 

GREAT BRITAIN. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, October 16, 1884. 

ITALY. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, August 22, 1893. 

PORTUGAL. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, November 9, 1878. 
Consular convention, November 9, 1878. 

SPAIN. 

Treaty of peace and amity, September 10, 1880. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, February 4, 1859. 

URUGUAY. 

Treaty of peace and amity, April 20, 1883. 

Convention for the extradition of criminals, April 30, 1883. 

179 



180 PARAGUAY. 

OTHER TREATIES. 

The following treaties were concluded in Montevideo (South American Congress) 
between the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Peru, Paraguay, and Uruguay : 

Treaty on trade-marks, January 16, 1889. 

Treaty on international commercial law, February 12, 1889. 

Treaty on literary and artistic property, January 11, 1889. 

Treaty on international criminal law, January 23, 1889. 

Treaty on international civil law, February 12, 1889. 

Treaty on international law of procedure, January 11, 1889. 

Additional protocol for the application of the laws connected with the international 
private law, February 13, 1889. 

Treaty on patents of inventions, January 16, 1889. 

Convention upon the exercise of liberal professions, February 4, 1889. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Acahay 72,122 

Acaray Falls 14 

Acaray Kiver 14 

Aceval (Don Emilio) . . . : 26 

Age, population by 34,35,36 

Agricultural Bank 73, 84, 86 

Agricultural wealth 79 

Agriculture, school of 125 

Aguardiente. See Cana. 

Ajos, department of 71 

Algarrobo 132 

Aloes 99 

Alonzo (Don Mariano Roque) 25 

Altos 71,122 

A mambay Mountains 9 

American goods 106 

Anana 86 

Anguite Indians 28 

Apa River 16, 138 

Appearance of Paraguay 9 

Aquidaban River 16 

Arachi-chu 132 

Area, before the war of 1865-1870. 5 

Area, present time 5 

Aregua 72, 137 

Aregui 28 

Argentine indemnity 112 

Arias de Saa vedra ( Hernando ) 23 

Army 69 

Aromatic plants 96 

Arroyos y Esteros 71, 122 

Arsenic 91 

Asuncion, city of 15, 72, 73, 137, 138 

Atira 71,122 

Ayolas (Juan de) 23 

Award of President Hayes 158 

Bacon (John E.) 10,11 

Bacteriological Institute 126 

Bahia Negra 138 

Baker, E. L ■_ . 81, 97, 98, 164 

Bananas 86 

Banks 73 



Page. 

Bareiro ( Don Candido ) 26 

Barley 84 

Barrero Grande 71, 122 

Bedoy (Don Jose Diaz) 25 

Beer 95 

Bella Vista 136 

Benitez (Ichazo Benitez Treaty).. 7 

Bermejo River 16 

Bernal Cue 84 

Bertoni (Dr. Moses) 29 

Bibliographical notes 141 

Bishop 125 

Bitters 96 

Black soil 89,90 

Blancos 27 

Bobi 71 

Boca del Rio Yejui 138 

Bocas del Rio Paraguay 136 

Bogarm (Xavier) 24 

Bonaparte (Jose) 24 

Borja 137 

Boundaries. See Limits. 
Boundary Commission of 1872- 

1874 6 

Bourgadela Dardye (Dr. E. de) . 15, 21, 6.8 

Brandies 96 

Brazilian indemnity 112 

Brazilian pineapple 86 

British Consular Report, 1900 108 

British trade 105 

Bruyssel (Ernest van) 21,101,113 

Building stone 89 

Caa-acy 133 

Caa-cauga 133 

Caa-chira 133 

Caacupe 71-122 

Caaguazii 71 

Caaguazu Mountains 9 

Caa-hoby 132 

Caa-hu-guazu 133 

Caa-pa 133 

Caatpeba 131 

181 



182 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Caa-pigsu 131 

Caaporopi 131 

Caapucu . . . 72, 122 

Caatigua 133 

Caazapa 29, 71, 75 

Caballero 137 

Caballero ( Don Bernardino ) 26 

Caballero (Juan Pedro) 24, 25 

Cabeza de Vaca (Don Alvaro 

Nurlez) 23 

Cabinet 67 

Cabot (Sebastian) 23 

Caiguae Indians 28 

Campana (La) 27 

Cantons 71 

Cana 95 

Caoutchouc. See Rubber. 

Capiata 72, 75 

Capital (La) 27 

Caraguata 84, 97, 128 

Caraguatay 71, 122 

Carapegua 72, 75, 122 

Carayao 71 

Carmen del Parana 71 

Carvallo (Don Hector) .. 26,86,103,126 

Cataldino ( Father Jose) 24 

Catedral district 71 

Catorce de Mayo Colony 29 

Cattle 1 87 

Cedar 134 

Census 27 

Cerro Leon 137 

Chaco (El) 6,10,11 

Chaguaza 131 

Chamacoco Indians 28 

Chamber of Commerce 107 

Chamber of Deputies 67 

Charles III, King of Spain 24 

Charles IV, King of Spain 24 

Chilea 133 

Chiriguano Indians 28 

Chiriguelo yerbales 79 

Church hierarchy 125 

Cigars and cigarrettes 96, 97 

Cities 71 

Civil Code 68 

Clay 97, 98 

Climate 17 

Coca 132 

Cochineal 133 

Cocoanut 84, 86 

Code of Military Law 68 

Coffee 84 



Page. 

Coins 138 

Colleges 129 

Colonia Catalana 77 

Colonia Nacional 76, 159 

Colonia Penal 138 

Colonia Risso 138 

Colonies 15 

Colonization 27 

Commerce 101 

Commercial Center 98 

Commercial Code 68 

Commission ( Boundary) 6 

Concepcion. See Villa Concepcion. 

Conclusions about population 39 

Confuso River 15 

Congress 67 

Consejo Secundario y Superior . . . 125 

Conservatory of Vaccination 126 

Constitution 67, 145 

Constitutional Convention 25 

Consular officers 69 

Consuls ( of the Republic ) 24 

Copper 89 

Cordillera 9 

Corrientes 13, 119, 136 

Corumba 119 

Cotton 83, 94, 173 

Council of Education 129 

Council of Hygienics 126 

Court of Appeals 68 

Criminal Court 68 

Cuadra 75 

Current prices 127 

Curupai 134 

Curupicay 84 

Curupuay 97 

Cururu-iby 131 

Curuzu-chica 138 

Curuzu-y 131 

Customs duties 113 

Custom-houses 116 

Dardye (Dr. E. de Bourgade la). 

See Bourgade. 
Debt. See Financial condition. 

Decoud ( Don Jose Segundo ) 14, 

81,86,102,111,126 

Density of population 30 

Department of Foreign Relations. 67 

Department of the Interior 68 

Department of Justice, Worship, 

and Public Instruction 68 

Department of the Treasury 68 

Department of War and the Navy. 68 



INDEX. 



183 



Pajye. 

Departments and districts 71 

Deputies 67 

Desmochados 72 

Diamante 136, 137 

Dictator 24 

Diplomatic Officers 69 

Direct taxation 117, 171 

Distances 136 

Distilleries 95, 96 

Divisions, political 71 

Domestic industries 98 

Du Graty. See Graty. 

Duties on exports 115 

Duties on imports 113 

Dyestuffs 131,132,133 

Egusquiza (Don Juan Bautista) .. 26 

El Chaco. See Chaco. 

El Paso de la Patria. See Paso de 

la Patria. 

Elise ( San Antonio ) Colony 77 

Emboscada 28,71,122 

Encarnacion 71 

Escobar (Don Patricio) 26 

Escobar 137 

Eslingage due 116 

Esquina 136 

Esteros. See Arroyos y Esteros. 

Executive power 67 

Exhibition of domestic industry . . 98 

Expenses (Government) 113,118 

Explorations of the Parana River. 14 
Explorations of the Pilcomayo 

River 11, 12 

Export duties 115 

Exports. See Commerce. 

Exports of yerba 80 

Exposition (Paris) , 1855 132 

Extranjeros 27 

Fabrics, cotton and woolen 89 

Facilities to immigrants 29, 30 

Fiber 84 

Field (Father) 24 

Finances Ill 

Financial condition Ill 

' ' Fiscal General ' ' of the State 68 

Flax 84 

Flour 98 

Fontana expedition 12 

Foreign coins 138 

Foreign population 31 

Formosa 136 

Franca See Francia. 

Franca Nueva 122 



Page. 
France. See Commerce. 
Francia (Gaspar Rodriguez de) . 24, 25, 97 
French ( Invasion of Spain by the ) . 24 

Freight rates 120 

Fruits 85 

Fuerte Olimpo 10 

Geographical situation, 5 

Gill (Don Juan Bautista) 26 

Gonzalez 137 

Gonzalez (Don Juan G. ) 26, 86 

Governing board of Paraguay 24 

Government (provisional) 25 

Government revenues and expenses 113 

Goya 136 

Grants of lands 162 

Grapes 86 

Graphite 90 

Graty (Mr. du) 91 

Great Britain. See Commerce. 

Guanae Indians 28 

Guarambare 72, 122 

Guarani Indians 28 

Guarani language 93, 125 

Guavira-mi 96 

Guayra Falls , _ . 9,13,14 

Guazu-cua 72 

Guembe 131 

Guembepi 85, 131 

Guillermo Tell Colony 29, 77 

Guindy 122 

Hacienda. See Department of the 

Treasury. 

Harrison ( William ) 106 

Hayes. See Award of President 

Hayes. 

Hiaty 71,137 

Hill (Frank D.) 9, 

20, 23, 81, 87, 88, 106, 119, 120 

Historical sketch 23 

Hohenau Colony 77 

Home for the poor 126 

Horqueta 71 

Humaita 16,136 

Humus 89,90 

Hydric oxide of iron 91 

Ibicuy 72. 122 

Ibira 84,128 

Ibini-no 134 

Ibitimi : 71, 137 

Ibope 132 

Ichazo-Benitez treaty 7 

Icipo 131 

Igan 131 



184 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Iguazii 13 

Ihacaguazu 71 

Illiteracy 32, 38 

Immigration 27, 28, 29 

Import duties. See Duties. 
Imports. See Commerce. 
India rubber. See Rubber. 

Indians 10, 28 

Industrial enterprises 93 

Industries and trades 94 

Information (miscellaneous) 127 

Information on the "Colonia Na- 
tional," formerly called "Presi- 
dent Gonzalez Colony " 159 

' ' Instituto Bacteriologico " 126 

! ' Instituto Paraguayo " 125 

Internal revenue 117 

Ipabosi 96 

Ipacaray 137 

Ipane 72, 122 

Ipane River 16 

Irala ( Capt. Martinez de) 23 

Iron 89, 91 

Isipo-yu 133 

Isla Saca 137 

Isla Umbri 72 

Ita 72,122 

Itacuruby 122 

Itacuruby de la Cordillera 71 

Itacuruby del Rosario 71 

Itaimbi Falls 14 

Itape 71, 137 

Itapitapunta 15 

Itaugua 72, 75, 97 

Jejuy River ] 6 

Jesuits 23, 24, 93 

Jesus, ' ' yerbales "of 79 

Jesus y Trinidad, department of. . 71 

Jovellanos (Don Salvador) 26 

Junta Gubernativa 24 

Justices of the peace 68 

Kaolin 90 

La Dardye. See Bourgade. 

Lace 94 

Lakes 16 

Lambare, district of 71 

Lambare Hill 15 

Land law 78,116,160 

Land warrants 112 

Lapacho 134 

Las Tres Bocas. See Tres Bocas. 

Laurel, black 134 

Laureles „ 72 



League 136 

Leases of public lands . . 116 

Lengua Indians 28 

Library ( University ) 125 

Licenses 117 

Lights, electric 73 

Lima 71 

Limits of Paraguay 5, 6 

Limpio 72 

Linea 75 

Literacy 32, 38 

Loizaga (Don Carlos) 25 

Lopez (Don Carlos Antonio) 25 

Lopez (Don Francisco Solano) . 15, 25, 95 

Luque : 72, 75, 137 

Macae Indians 28 

Maceta (Father) 24 

Machicui Indians 28 

Maciel 137 

Magnetic iron 91 

Maize 83 

Mandioca 83 

Manduvira River 10, 16 

Manga-ice 84 

Manganese 89 

Mangels (Enrique) 17 

Manguillo Hills 15 

Manicoba 84 

Manufacture of beer. See Beer. 
Manufacture of cigars and cigar- 
ettes. See Cigars and cigarettes. 
Manufacture of wine. See Wine. 
Manufactures (cotton and woolen 

articles) 94 

Manzana 75 

Maracayu Ridge 9 

Marble 89 

Maria Auxiliadora Academy 128 

Market for American goods 106 

Married people in Paraguay. . . 32, 36, 37 
Martinez. See Irala. 

Mate 79 

Mbayae Indians 28 

Mbeguepi 131 

Mbocaya 130 

Mbocaya-saite 131 

Mbocayati, department of 71 

Mbuy-Ibotey-Saimba 133 

Mbuyapey 72 

Measures 138 

Mechoacan 132 

Medical opinions on the yerba 80 

Metrical system ( French ) 138 



INDEX. 



185 



Page. 

Mills 98 

Mineral resources 89 

Ministerio. See Cabinet. 
Ministros. See Cabinet, Secreta- 
ries, Departments. 

Miscellaneous industries 98 

Miscellaneous information 127 

Misiones de San Ignacio 71 

Monday Falls 14 

' ' Montes virgenes " 131 

Mora (Fernando) 21 

Morinigo (Don Marcos) 26 

Mulatoes 28 

Mureci 132 

Names of Paraguay 5 

Nanduty 93 

Nandy-pa 133 

National Colony 76 

National Guard 69 

Nationality (population by) ... 31, 33, 34 

Native races 41-66 

Navigation and river service 119 

Navy (Department of). See De- 
partment. 

Navy of Paraguay 69 

Negroes 28 

Newspapers 73 

Nivel (Lieutenant Yon) 16 

Nopal 133 

Nueva Alemania Colony 76 

Nueva Australia Colony 29, 77 

Nunez Cabeza de Yaca (Don Al- 
varo ) . See Cabeza de Yaca. 

Ochers 131 

Olimpo. See F # uerte Olimpo. 

Oranges 85 

Ores 131 

Orphan Asylum 126 

Ortega (Father) 24 

" Ortiga gigante' ' 84 

Ortiz (Don Jose Manuel ) 25 

Pa 1 m s 130 

"Palo Santo" 135 

Paragua rembiii 131 

Paraguanu 72, 75, 137 

Paraguayan Central Eailroad 121 

' ' Paraguay Occidental " 5, 6, 9 

"Paraguay Oriental" 5,6, 10 

Paraguay River 5 

Paraguayan lace 94 

Parana River 9, 13 

Paris Exhibition of 1855 132 

Parishes 125 



Page. 

Paso de Santa Maria 91 

Passenger rates 121 

Patents 117 

Patiilo (Father) 16 

Patino-cue 86, 137 

Peanuts 86 

Pedro Gonzalez 72 

Penal Code 68 

Pena Hermosa 138 

Periodicals „ . 73 

' ' Peteriby negro " 135 

Philip III, King of Spain 23 

Pilcomayo River 11 

Pineapples 86 

Pirapita Falls 14 

Pirapo 137 

Piraty Falls 14 

Pirayii 72,137 

Piribebuy 71 

Piribebuy River 16 

Piribehuy 122 

Plateau of San Jose Amambay 10 

Police courts 68 

Population 27, 30, 31 , 39 

Porcelain 131 

Porphyry 91 

Porter (Dr. J . Hampden ) 41 

Port dues 116 

Posadas 119 

Postal service 124 

Pottery 97,98 

Premiums of Paraguay at the Paris 

Exhibition of 1855 132 

President Gonzalez Colony 76, 159 

Presidents of Paraguay 25 

President of the Republic 25 

Progress of Paraguay 102 

Providencia Academy 126 

' ' Provincia de Paraguay " 5 

Prices (current) 127 

Public buildings. See Asuncion. 

Public instruction 125 

Public lands 116 

Public library. See Asuncion. 

Puerto Casado 138 

Pyta 131 

Quebracho 97, 135 

Quimdy 72 

Quiquio 72, 122 

Railroad, telegraph, telephone, and 

postal service 121 

Rainfall 19 

Ramie 85, 128 



186 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Ranch „._„.. 88 

Raw materials 131 

Recoleta, district 71 

Recoleta Hills 15 

Red soil. See Soil. 
Relations (Department of For- 
eign) . See Department. 

Religion 125 

Responsibility of the members of 

theCabinet 68 

Revenues 113, 117 

Rice 83 

Rivarola (Don Cirilo Antonio) ... 25 

Rivers 13 

River service. See Navigation. 
Rodriguez Francia (Gaspar). See 
Francia. 

Rosario 136 

Rosewood . 134 

Rubber 84 

Rum. See Cana. 

Rural Code 68 

Saavedra. See Arias de Saavedra. 

Salado River 16 

Sale of public lands 116 

Salesian College of Arts and Trades 125 

Salesian Sisters 125 

Salonio (Father) 24 

Salubrity 20 

SamuM 130 

San Antonio Colony 77 

Sanapami Indians 28 

San Bernardino 76 

San Cosme, department 71, 122 

Sandstone 89 

Sandy soil. See Soil. 

San Estanislao 71, 75 

San Fernandino 13 

San Ignacio 122 

San Joaquin, department 71 

San Jose 71, 122 

San Jose Amambay 10 

San Jose-mi 116,122 

San Juan Bautista 71, 122 

San Juan Bautista del Pilar 72 

San Juan Nepomuceno 71 

San Lorenzo ., 122 

San Lorenzo de la Frontera * 72 

San Lorenzo del Campo Grande . . 72 

San Luis College 125 

San Miguel 71, 122 

San Nicolas 136 

San Pedro 16,136 



Page. 

San Pedro del Parana 71 

San Roque district 71 

San Salvador 138 

Santa Clara 137 

Santa Clara Colony 29 

Santa Maria 71, 122 

Santa Rosa 71 

Santiago 71, 122 

San Vicente Hospital 126 

Sapucay 123 

School of Agriculture 125 

Schools 125 

Seasons. See Climate. 
Secretaries. See Cabinet and De- 
partments. 

Senate 67 

Senators 67 

Serpentine stone 91 

Sex (Population by) ... . 31, 34, 35, 36, 37 
Shaw (Edmund) . 11, 80, 105, 111, 121, 123 

Sierras 89 

Sleepers (Railroad) 135 

Society of Jesus. See Jesuits. 

Soil 89,90 

Sosa 137 

Spain 23, 24, 109 

Spanish language 125 

Stamps, revenue, etc 117 

Steamship lines 119 

Stock raising 87 

Stone (building) 89 

Street railways 121 

Sugar 96 

Sugar cane 81 

Summer. See Climate. 

Supreme Court 68 

Tacuaras 72 

Tacuaty 71 

Tacumbii 122 

Tacurupucu yerbales 79 

Tacurupyta yerbales 79 

Talc 90 

Tanneries . 97 

Tapaby 28, 72 

Tariff ." 113 

Tartago 86 

Tatane 135 

Tata-y-iba 133 

Taxes 117,171 

Tebicuary River , 10 

Telegraphic movement . . .... 123 

Telegraphs 117,122 

Telephones 123 



INDEX. 



187 



Page. 

Temperature 17, 18 

Territory of Paraguay 5 

Textile plants 84, 128 

Timber 86 

Timber trade 134 

Tim bo 132 

Tinctorial matters 131-134 

Tobacco 82 

Toba Indians 28 

Tobati 71, 122 

Tonnage 119 

Topographical description 9 

Topography 9 

Trade-mark law 175 

Trades and industries 94 

Trapiches 96 

Treasury Department. See De- 
partment. 

Treaties 5,6,7,112,179 

Tres Bocas 16 

Tribes (Indian tribes). See In- 
dians. 

Trinidad 71, 122, 137 

Triumvirate 25 

Tubicha moroti 132 

Union 71 

University 73, 125, 126 

Unmarried people in Paraguay ... 32, 36 

Upua Lake 16 

Uriarte ( Don Higinio ) 26 

Urubu-vetyma 132 

Urucu 133 

Uruguayan indemnity 112 

Urundey-mi 132 

Urundi-mi 135 

Vaca (Don Alvaro Nunez Cabeza 

de). See Cabeza de Vaca. 
Vaccination (National Conserva- 
tory of) 126 

Vallenzuela 71, 122 

Veinte y cinco de Noviembre Col- 
ony 77 

Velazco ( Governor) 24 

Vice-President 26, 67 

Villa Conception 15, 71 , 74, 138 

Villa Encarnacion 10, 71, 75 

Villa Florida 71, 122 

Villa Franca 72, 136 

Villa Hayes 6, 75 

Villa Humaita 72 

Villa Morra 122 

Villa Occidental 10 

Villa Oliva „ 72,136 



Page. 

Villa del Pilar 72, 75, 136 

Villa Rica 29, 71, 74, 137 

Villa del Rosario 71 

Villa San Pedro 71, 75 

Villeta 72, 75, 136 

Von Ni vel ( Lieutenant) . See Nivel . 
War with Brazil, the Argentine 

Republic and Uruguay 5, 25 

Weights and measures 138, 139, 140 

Wheat 83 

Widowers and widows in Paraguay 32 

Winds 20 

Wine 95 

Winter. See Climate. 

Woolen fabrics 94 

Yabebiry 72 

Yaguaron 72, 122 

Yatahy 130 

Yataity department 71 

Yatay 131 

Ybicuy. See Ibicuy. 
Ybira. See Ibira. 
Ybira-no. See Ibir^-no. 
Ybitimi. See Ibitimi. 
Ybope. See Ibope. 
Ychazo-Benitez treaty. See Ichazo- 

Benitez treaty. 
Ycipo. See Icipo. 

Yegros (Francisco) 24 

Yegros (Fulgencio) 24 

Yejui River 138 

Yerba, or yerba mate 79, 164 

" Yerba de piedra" 133 

Yerbales 5, 10, 79 

Ygan. See Igan. "■""■-* 

Yguazu. See Iguazu. 
Yhacaguazu. See Ihacaguazii. 

Ynacarinina 131 

Ypane. See Ipane. 

Ypabosi. See Ipabosi. 

Ysypo-yu. See Isipo-yu. 

Yta. See Ita. 

Ytacurubi de la Cordillera. See 

Itacurubl. 
Ytacurubi del Rosario. See Itacu- 
rubl. 
Ytaimbi Falls. See Itaimbi Falls. 
Ytape. See Itape. 
Ytangua. See Itanguii. 
Ytapytapunta. See Itapitapunta. 

Yuqueri-pehy 132 

Yuty 71, 75, 79 

Zeballos (Juan Valeriano) 24 



o 



"51 



